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Report of the Commission for Historical Clarification
Conclusions and Recommendations
Table of Contents
Prologue
11
Acknowledgements
13
Introduction
15
Conclusions
17
I. The tragedy of the armed
CONFRONTATION
17
II. Human rights violations, acts
OF VIOLENCE AND ASSIGNMENT
OF RESPONSIBILITY
33
III. Peace and reconciliation
44
Recommendations
47
I. Introduction
47
II. Measures to preserve
THE MEMORY OF THE VICTIMS
48
III. REPARATORY MEASURES
49
IV. Measures to foster a culture of
MUTUAL RESPECT AND OBSERVANCE
OF HUMAN RIGHTS
54
V. Measures to strengthen
THE DEMOCRATIC PROCESS 58
VI. Other recommendations
TO PROMOTE PEACE
AND NATIONAL HARMONY 65
VII. Body responsible
FOR PROMOTING AND MONITORING
THE IMPLEMENTATION
OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS 67
VIII. Request to the United Nations 69
Annexes
Chronology of the period
of armed confrontation 7 1
Presidential periods, 1900-1996 78
Map of social exclusion 81
Map of linguistic communities
of Guatemala 82
Map of massacres 83
Principal violations by year
and by department 84
Victims and violations by year
and ethnic group 85
Violations by responsible force 86
As we consume life's quota,
how many truths elude us?
AUGUSTO MONTERROSO
Movimiento perpetuo
Silence lost its way
when a hand
opened the doors to the voice.
Francisco Morales Santos
Al pie de la letra
Let the history we lived
be taught in the schools,
so that it is never forgotten,
so our children may know it.
Testimony given to the CEH
cease to do evil
learn to do good;
seek justice,
correct oppression;
defend the fatherless,
plead for the widow.
Isaiah 1,16-17
Prologue
Guatemala is a country of contrasts and contradictions. Situated in the middle of the
American continent, bathed by the waters of the Caribbean and the Pacific, its inhabi-
tants live in a multiethnic, pluricultural and multilingual nation, in a State which
emerged from the triumph of liberal forces in Central America. Guatemala has seen periods
marked by beauty and dignity from the beginning of the ancient Mayan culture to the present day;
its name has been glorified through its works of science, art, and culture; by men and women of
honour and peace, both great and humble; by its Nobel Laureates for Literature and Peace.
However, in Guatemala, pages have also been written of shame and infamy, disgrace and terror,
pain and grief, all as a product of the armed confrontation among brothers and sisters. For more
than 34 years, Guatemalans lived under the shadow of fear, death and disappearance as daily
threats in the lives of ordinary citizens.
The Commission for Historical Clarification (CEH) was established through the Accord of
Oslo on 23 June 1994, in order to clarify with objectivity, equity and impartiality, the human
rights violations and acts of violence connected with the armed confrontation that caused suffer-
ing among the Guatemalan people. The Commission was not established to judge - that is the
function of the courts of law — but rather to clarify the history of the events of more than three
decades of fratricidal war.
When we were appointed to form the CEH, each of us, through different routes and all by
life's fortune, knew in general terms the outline of events. As Guatemalans, two of us had lived the
entire tragedy on our native soil, and in one way or another, had suffered it. However, none of us
could have imagined the full horror and magnitude of what actually happened.
The Commission's mandate was to provide an answer to questions that continue to be
asked in peacetime: why did part of society resort to armed violence in order to achieve political
power? What can explain the extreme acts of violence committed by both parties — of differing
types and intensities — in the armed confrontation? Why did the violence, especially that used by
the State, affect civilians and particularly the Mayan people, whose women were considered to be
the spoils of war and who bore the full brunt of the institutionalised violence? Why did defence-
less children suffer acts of savagery? Why, using the name of God, was there an attempt to erase
from the face of the earth the sons and daughters of Xmukane', the grandmother of life and nat-
ural creation? Why did these acts of outrageous brutality, which showed no respect for the most
basic rules of humanitarian law, Christian ethics and the values of Mayan spirituality, take place?
We received thousands of testimonies; we accompanied the survivors at such moving
moments as the exhumation of their loved ones from clandestine cemeteries; we listened to former
heads of State and the high command of both the Army and the guerrillas; we read thousands of
12
pages of documents received from a full range of civil society's organisations. The Commission's
Report has considered all the versions and takes into account what we have heard, seen and read
regarding the many atrocities and brutalities.
The main purpose of the Report is to place on record Guatemala's recent, bloody past.
Although many are aware that Guatemala's armed confrontation caused death and destruction, the
gravity of the abuses suffered repeatedly by its people has yet to become part of the national con-
sciousness. The massacres that eliminated entire Mayan rural communities belong to the same real-
ity as the persecution of the urban political opposition, trade union leaders, priests and catechists.
These are neither perfidious allegations, nor figments of the imagination, but an authentic chap-
ter in Guatemala's history.
The authors of the Accord of Oslo believed that, despite the shock the Nation could suf-
fer upon seeing itself reflected in the mirror of its past, it was nevertheless necessary to know the
truth and make it public. It was their hope that truth would lead to reconciliation, and further-
more, that coming to terms with the truth is the only way to achieve this objective.
There is no doubt that the truth is of benefit to everyone, both victims and transgressors.
The victims, whose past has been degraded and manipulated, will be dignified; the perpetrators,
through the recognition of their immoral and criminal acts, will be able to recover the dignity of
which they had deprived themselves.
Knowing the truth of what happened will make it easier to achieve national reconcilia-
tion, so that in the future Guatemalans may live in an authentic democracy, without forgetting
that the rule of justice as the means for creating a new State has been and remains the general
objective of all.
No one today can be sure that the enormous challenge of reconciliation, through knowl-
edge of the truth, can be successfully faced. Above all, it is necessary to recognise the facts of his-
tory and learn from the Nation's suffering. To a great extent, the future of Guatemala depends on
the responses of the State and society to the tragedies that nearly all Guatemalans have experienced
personally.
The erroneous belief that the end justifies the means converted Guatemala into a country
of death and sadness. It should be remembered, once and for all, that there are no values superior
to the lives of human beings, and thereby superior to the existence and well-being of an entire
national community. The State has no existence of its own, but rather is purely an organisational
tool by which a nation addresses its vital interests.
Thousands are dead. Thousands mourn. Reconciliation, for those who remain, is impossi-
ble without justice. Miguel Angel Asturias, Guatemala's Nobel Laureate for Literature, said: "The
eyes of the buried will close together on the day of justice, or they will never close."
With sadness and pain we have fulfilled the mission entrusted to us. We place the CEH's
Report, this Memory of Silence, into the hands of every Guatemalan, the men and women of yes-
terday and today, so that future generations may be aware of the enormous calamity and tragedy
suffered by their people. May the lessons of this Report help us to consider, hear and understand
others and be creative as we live in peace.
Christian Tomuschat Otilia Lux de Cot! Alfredo Balsells Tojo
Acknowledgements
The Commission for Historical Clarification wishes to express a sincere tribute to the peo-
ple of Guatemala, to the victims of the violence of the past, to their relatives, to the wit-
nesses, to so many people who, through their own personal initiative and with the purpose
of contributing to national reconciliation through the clarification of history, have come to the
CEH and placed .their trust in us. Without them, without their help, support and trust, our deli-
cate task would have been difficult to complete. Their continuous support has motivated and
inspired us.
The two Parties to the Accord of Oslo, the Government of the Republic of Guatemala and
the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity, created and facilitated conditions, particularly
with the Government's financial contribution, for the establishment of the CEH and the fulfilment
of its mandate. Whenever asked, the Congress of the Republic facilitated the adequate operation
of the CEH. The judiciary responded positively and took us into proper account.
From the preparatory phase of the CEH's installation, various Guatemalan human rights
organisations made extremely valuable contributions to the CEH's work. In general, the organisa-
tions of Guatemalan civil society, including those working for with human rights, victims, indige-
nous peoples, women's rights and various other concerns, as well as the private sector and profes-
sional associations, lent their continuous support to the work entrusted to this Commission.
The national and international media fulfilled, in exemplary fashion, their function to
inform, having followed the CEH's work with the. utmost attention and respect. This allowed
Guatemalan society to keep abreast of each advance made by the CEH and to receive the many
notifications and conveyances addressed to it.
Without the political and moral support and the financial contributions of the interna-
tional community, the CEH would not have been able to complete its complex task. The govern-
ments of Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway,
Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the United
States of America and the European Union contributed the funds allowing the Commission to
cover its budget. The government of the United States of America also made a significant effort to
declassify vital documents. The Government of Argentina lent vital support to the CEH as well.
The Embassy of Norway in Guatemala deserves special mention for its continuous attention to and
action regarding the needs of the Commission.
The CEH would like to express its greatest appreciation to the Secretary-General of the
United Nations, who, responding to the request made by the Parties in the Accord of Oslo, made
all the necessary arrangements to prepare for the operation of the Commission and establish an
appropriate mechanism through the Department of Political Affairs, which enabled the United
National Office for Project Services to establish the CEH Support Office as one of its projects.
14
UNOPS has demonstrated extraordinary capacity and flexibility in the management of a project
of such complexity.
The United Nations System also contributed experts and materials that helped offset the
financial needs. The Secretary-General of the United Nations, the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), UNOPS,
the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the International Criminal Tribunal
for the former Yugoslavia all contributed by lending experts to the Commission. The United
Nations Verification Mission in Guatemala (MINUGUA) provided vital logistical support for the
Commission's work.
The international NGOs helped the Commission from the moment of its inception, offer-
ing technical assistance, directly facilitating the gathering of information by serving as an impor-
tant channel in its acquisition, making the Commission's work known and making valuable efforts
to obtain information from other governments. The American Association for the Advancement of
Science through the appointment of an expert; the Ford Foundation with a financial contribution;
and the Soros-Guatemala Foundation through the loan of vehicles, significantly helped the
Commission's work.
The members of the CEH would never have been able to fulfil the mandate without the
enormous effort of all the personnel working in the Support Office, under the supervision of the
ExecutiveiSecr-etary. All personnel, the Central Team, those responsible for the numerous regional
offices, the investigators, analysts, interpreters, administrators and various other assistants, from
Guatemala and from thirty-one other nations, have supported us with their admirable commit-
ment and generous dedication, frequently working in difficult conditions and under permanent
pressure.
To everyone, thank you!
Introduction
he CEH's Report has been structured in accordance with the objectives and terms of the
mandate entrusted to it by the Parties to the Guatemalan peace process as expressed in the
Accord of Oslo, signed in Norway, on 23 June 1994.
The Report begins with a description of the mandate and the methodology it followed in car-
rying out its work, and subsequently enters into an examination of the causes and origins of the
internal armed confrontation, the strategies and mechanisms of the violence and its conse-
quences and effects. The conclusions are then presented and are followed by recommendations,
the third component of the CEH's mandate. Finally, there are annexes that include the findings
on specific illustrative cases of the events of the past; a listing with a brief description of each
and every case presented to the Commission; and various other elements utilised in the fulfil-
ment of the mandate.
This volume, whose purpose is to anticipate the public dissemination of the final docu-
ment, contains two of the Report's essential elements: the conclusions and the recommendations.
The conclusions summarise the results of almost a year of investigation and are based on
testimonies received directly by the CEH, together with a wealth of information from the Parties
to the confrontation, other governments and a variety of secondary sources. These were comple-
mented by historical analysis and statistical information from the CEH's database.
The conclusions are structured in three complementary sections: general conclusions, con-
clusions regarding acts that constitute violations of human rights and acts of violence and conclu-
sions related to the process of peace and reconciliation. To aid understanding, there are also annex-
es relating to the conclusions which include: a chronology of the governments of Guatemala and
of the armed confrontation, basic maps and statistical information.
As established by the CEH's mandate, the objective of the recommendations is to promote
peace and national harmony in Guatemala. These recommendations have been structured as: mea-
sures to preserve the memory of the victims, measures to foster a culture of mutual respect and
observance of human rights, measures for the strengthening of the democratic process and mea-
sures for the promotion of peace and national harmony. Recommendations for reparations are
included among those measures to preserve the memory of the victims.
Conclusions
I. The tragedy of the armed confrontation
1 . With the outbreak of the internal armed confrontation in 1962, Guatemala entered a tragic and
devastating stage of its history, with enormous human, material and moral cost. In the documen-
tation of human rights violations and acts of violence connected with the armed confrontation, the
Commission for Historical Clarification (CEH) registered a total of 42,275 victims, including
men, women and children. Of these, 23,671 were victims of arbitrary execution and 6,159 were
victims of forced disappearance. Eighty-three percent of fully identified victims were Mayan and
seventeen percent were Ladino. 1
2. Combining this data with the results of other studies of political violence in Guatemala, the
CEH estimates that the number of persons killed or disappeared as a result of the fratricidal con-
frontation reached a total of over 200,000.
Historical roots of the armed confrontation
3. The Commission for Historical Clarification (CEH) concludes that the structure and nature of
economic, cultural and social relations in Guatemala are marked by profound exclusion, antago-
nism and conflict — a reflection of its colonial history. The proclamation of independence in 1821,
an event prompted by the country's elite, saw the creation of an authoritarian State which exclud-
ed the majority of the population, was racist in its precepts and practises, and served to protect the
economic interests of the privileged minority. The evidence for this, throughout Guatemala's his-
tory, but particularly so during the armed confrontation, lies in the fact that the violence was fun-
damentally directed by the State against the excluded, the poor and above all, the Mayan people,
as well as against those who fought for justice and greater social equality.
4. The anti-democratic nature of the Guatemalan political tradition has its roots in an economic
structure, which is marked by the concentration of productive wealth in the hands of a minority.
This established the foundations of a system of multiple exclusions, including elements of racism,
which is, in turn, the most profound manifestation of a violent and dehumanising social system.
The State gradually evolved as an instrument for the protection of this structure, guaranteeing the
continuation of exclusion and injustice.
1 Throughout these conclusions, figures will be presented which refer only to cases documented by the CEH. They are only a sample of the human
rights violations and acts of violence connected with the armed confrontation.
18
5. The absence of an effective state social policy, with the exception of the period from 1944 to
1954, accentuated this historical dynamic of exclusion. In many cases, more recent State policy has
produced inequality, or, at the very least, endemic institutional weaknesses have accentuated it.
Proof of this can be seen in the fact that, during the twenty years of Guatemala's most rapid eco-
nomic growth (1960-1980), state social spending and taxation were the lowest in Central America.
6. Due to its exclusionary nature, the State was incapable of achieving social consensus around a
national project able to unite the whole population. Concomitantly, it abandoned its role as medi-
ator between divergent social and economic interests, thus creating a gulf which made direct con-
frontation between them more likely. Of particular concern for the CEH, was the way in which
successive constitutions of the Republic, and the human and civil rights guarantees set forth in
them, became formal instruments violated by the various structures of the State itself.
7. The legislative branch and the participating political parties also contributed at various times
to the increasing polarisation and exclusion, establishing legal norms which legitimised regimes
of exception and the suppression of civil and political rights, as well as hindering or obstructing
any process of change. Appropriate institutional mechanisms for channelling concerns, claims and
proposals from different sectors of society were lacking. This deficit of channels for constructively
directing dissent through mediation, typical of democratic systems, further consolidated a politi-
cal culture of confrontation and intolerance and provoked almost uninterrupted instability, per-
meating the whole social order.
8. Thus a vicious circle was created in which social injustice led to protest and subsequently polit-
ical instability, to which there were always only two responses: repression or military coups. Faced
with movements proposing economic, political, social or cultural change, the State increasingly
resorted to violence and terror in order to maintain social control. Political violence was thus a
direct expression of structural violence.
Repression as a substitute for the law
9. The CEH has concluded that during the armed confrontation, the incapacity of the Guatemalan
State to provide answers to legitimate social demands and claims, led to the creation of an intri-
cate repressive apparatus which replaced the judicial action of the courts, usurping their functions
and prerogatives. An illegal and underground punitive system was established, managed and
directed by military intelligence. The system was used as the State's main form of social control
throughout the internal armed confrontation and operated with the direct or indirect collabora-
tion of dominant economic and political sectors.
The ineffectiveness of the judicial system
10. The country's judicial system, due either to induced or deliberate ineffectiveness, failed to
guarantee the application of the law, tolerating, and even facilitating, violence. Whether through
acts of commission or omission, the judicial branch contributed to worsening social conflicts at
various times in Guatemala's history. Impunity permeated the country to such an extent that it
19
took control of the very structure of the State, and became both a means and an end. As a means,
it sheltered and protected the repressive acts of the State, as well as those acts committed by indi-
viduals who shared similar objectives; whilst as an end, it was a consequence of the methods used
to repress and eliminate political and social opponents.
The closing of political spaces
11. After the overthrow of the government of Colonel Jacobo Arbenz in 1954, there was a rapid
reduction of the opportunity for political expression. Inspired by fundamentalist anti-communism,
new legislation outlawed the extensive and diverse social movement and consolidated the restric-
tive and exclusionary nature of the political system. These restrictions on political participation
were agreed to by the country's real powers and activated by the period's civil and political forces.
In itself, this process constitutes one of the most overwhelming pieces of evidence for the close rela-
tionship between the military, the economic powers and the political parties that emerged in 1954.
From 1963 onwards, in addition to the legal restrictions, growing state repression against its real
or suspected opponents was another decisive factor in the closing of political options in Guatemala.
The underlying causes of the armed confrontation
1 2. The CEH concludes that other parallel phenomena, such as structural injustice, the closing
of political spaces, racism, the increasing exclusionary and anti-democratic nature of institutions,
as well as the reluctance to promote substantive reforms that could have reduced structural con-
flicts, are the underlying factors which determined the origin and subsequent outbreak of the
armed confrontation.
The cold war, the National Security Doctrine
and the role of the United States
13. The CEH recognises that the movement of Guatemala towards polarisation, militarization and
civil war was not just the result of national history. The cold war also played an important role.
Whilst anti-communism, promoted by the United States within the framework of its foreign pol-
icy, received firm support from right-wing political parties and from various other powerful actors
in Guatemala, the United States demonstrated that it was willing to provide support for strong
military regimes in its strategic backyard. In the case of Guatemala, military assistance was direct-
ed towards reinforcing the national intelligence apparatus and for training the officer corps in
couhterinsurgency techniques, key factors which had significant bearing on human rights viola-
tions during the armed confrontation.
14. Anti-communism and the National Security Doctrine (DSN) formed part of the anti-Soviet
strategy of the United States in Latin America. In Guatemala, these were first expressed as anti-
reformist, then anti-democratic policies, culminating in criminal counterinsurgency. The National
Security Doctrine fell on fertile ground in Guatemala where anti-communist thinking had already
taken root and from the 1930s, had merged with the defence of religion, tradition and conserva-
20
tive values, all of which were allegedly threatened by the world-wide expansion of atheistic com-
munism. Until the 1950s, these views were strongly supported by the Catholic Church, which
qualified as communist any position that contradicted its philosophy, thus contributing even fur-
ther to division and confusion in Guatemalan society.
The internal enemy
15. During the armed confrontation, the State's idea of the "internal enemy", intrinsic to the
National Security Doctrine, became increasingly inclusive. At the same time, this doctrine became
the raison d'etre of Army and State policies for several decades. Through its investigation, the CEH
discovered one of the most devastating effects of this policy, state forces and related paramilitary
groups were responsible for 93% of the violations documented by the CEH, including 92% of the
arbitrary executions and 91% of forced disappearances. Victims included men, women and chil-
dren of all social strata: workers, professionals, church members, politicians, peasants, students and
academics; in ethnic terms, the vast majority were Mayans.
The Catholic Church
1 6. Only recently in Guatemalan history and within a short time period did the Catholic Church
abandon its conservative position in favour of an attitude and practise based on the decisions of the
Second Vatican Council (1962-1965) and the Episcopal Conference of Medellin (1968), prioritis-
ing its work with excluded, poor and under-privileged sectors and promoting the construction of
a more just and equitable society. These doctrinal and pastoral changes clashed with counterinsur-
gency strategy, which considered Catholics to be allies of the guerrillas and therefore part of the
internal enemy, subject to persecution, death or expulsion. Whereas the guerrilla movement saw
in the practise of what was known as "liberation theology" common ground on which to extend
its social base, seeking to gain the sympathy of its followers. A large number of catechists, lay
activists, priests, and missionaries were victims of the violence and gave their lives as a testimony
to the cruelty of the armed confrontation.
The Guatemalan insurgency, the armed struggle and the Cuban influence
1 7. The Guatemalan insurgency arose as the response of one sector of the population to the coun-
try's diverse structural problems. Faced with injustice, exclusion, poverty and discrimination, it
proclaimed the need to take power by force in order to build a new social, political and economic
order. Throughout the armed confrontation, insurgent groups adopted Marxist doctrine in its
diverse international forms. Although they had common historical roots in the proscribed com-
munist Guatemalan Worker's Party (PGT), several new guerrilla organisations emerged as a result
of their criticism of the party's reluctance to follow the path of armed struggle.
1 8. The influence of Cuba and its promotion of armed struggle had a bearing on these processes
as much in Guatemala as in the rest of Latin America. The CEH concludes that political, logistic,
instructional and training support provided by Cuba for the Guatemalan insurgents during this
21
period, was another important external factor that marked the evolution of the armed confronta-
tion. In the context of an increasingly repressive State, sectors of the left, specifically those of
Marxist ideology, adopted the Cuban perspective of armed struggle as the only way to ensure the
rights of the people and to take power.
1 9. As state repression intensified and broadened its range of potential victims, the rebel position
which held a guerrilla victory to be the country's only political solution, gained strength. Rather
than sharing a specific ideological-political platform, for the greater part of the confrontation, the
cohesion of the Guatemalan insurgency revolved around the idea of the need for, and the primacy
of, armed struggle as the only solution.
20. During its investigation, the CEH has confirmed that the political work of the guerrilla
organisations within the different sectors of society was increasingly directed towards strengthen-
ing their military capacity, to the detriment of the type of political activity characteristic of demo-
cratic sectors. Likewise, attempts by other political forces to take advantage of the limited oppor-
tunities for legal participation, were radically dismissed by some sectors of the insurgency as
"reformist" or "dissident", whilst people who sought to remain distant from the confrontation were
treated with profound mistrust and even as potential enemies. These attitudes contributed to
political intolerance and polarisation.
Enemies of the insurgents
21 . Along with a clear definition of the Army as its enemy, insurgent groups also included some
civilians in this category, especially representatives of economic and political power who were con-
sidered to be allies of the repression and those people suspected of providing support to the Army,
or who held local economic power, especially in rural areas. Among the cases registered by the
CEH, insurgent actions produced 3% of the human rights violations and acts of violence perpe-
trated against men, women and children, including ^% of the arbitrary executions and 2% of
forced disappearances.
More than just two parties
22. Although the most visible actors in the armed confrontation were the Army and the insur-
gents, the CEH investigation has made evident the involvement of the entire State, through the
unification of its various coercive institutions and mechanisms. Likewise, although of a different
nature, the responsibility and participation of economically powerful groups, political parties, uni-
versities and churches, as well as other sectors of civil society, has been demonstrated.
23. For this reason, the CEH concludes that a full explanation of the Guatemalan confrontation
cannot be reduced to the sole logic of two armed parties. Such an interpretation fails to explain or
establish the basis for the persistence and significance of the participation of the political parties
and economic forces in the initiation, development and continuation of the violence; nor does it
explain the repeated efforts at organisation and the continuous mobilisation of those sectors of the
population struggling to achieve their economic, political and cultural demands.
22
A disproportionately repressive response
24. The magnitude of the State s repressive response, totally disproportionate to the military force
of the insurgency, can only be understood within the framework of the country's profound social,
economic and cultural conflicts. Based on the results of its investigation, the CEH concludes that
from 1978 to 1982 citizens from broad sectors of society participated in growing social mobilisa-
tion and political opposition to the continuity of the country's established order. These movements
in some cases maintained ties of a varying nature with the insurgency. However, at no time dur-
ing the internal armed confrontation did the guerrilla groups have the military potential necessary
to pose an imminent threat to the State. The number of insurgent combatants was too small to be
able to compete in the military arena with the Guatemalan Army, which had more troops and
superior weaponry, as well as better training and co-ordination. It has also been confirmed that
during the armed confrontation, the State and the Army had knowledge of the level of organisa-
tion, the number of combatants, the type of weaponry and the strategy of the insurgent groups.
They were therefore well aware that the insurgents' military capacity did not represent a real threat
to Guatemala's political order.
25. The CEH concludes that the State deliberately magnified the military threat of the insur-
gency, a practise justified by the concept of the internal enemy. The inclusion of all opponents
under one banner, democratic or otherwise, pacifist or guerrilla, legal or illegal, communist or non-
communist, served to justify numerous and serious crimes. Faced with widespread political, socio-
economic and cultural opposition, the State resorted to military operations directed towards the
physical annihilation or absolute intimidation of this opposition, through a plan of repression car-
ried out mainly by the Army and national security forces. On this basis the CEH explains why the
vast majority of the victims of the acts committed by the State were not combatants in guerrilla
groups, but civilians.
Territorial concentration of military operations and their victims
26. Based on information analysed by the CEH, relevant differences in the territorial concentra-
tion of military operations and the type of victims can be confirmed, depending on the specific
period of the armed confrontation. In the period from 1962 to 1970, operations were concentrat-
ed in the eastern part of the country, Guatemala City and the south coast, the victims being main-
ly peasants, members of rural union organisations, university and secondary school teachers and
students and guerrilla sympathisers. In the years from 1971 to 1977, the repressive operations
were more selective and geographically dispersed. Victims included community and union lead-
ers, catechists and students.
27. During the most violent and bloody period of the entire armed confrontation, 1978-1985,
military operations were concentrated in Quiche, Huehuetenango, Chimaltenango, Alta and Baja
Verapaz, the south coast and the capital, the victims being principally Mayan and to a lesser extent
Ladino. During the final period, 1986-1996, repressive action was selective, affecting the Mayan
and Ladino population to a similar extent. The Communities of Population in Resistance were
principal targets of military operations in rural areas.
23
Children
28. The CEH has confirmed with particular concern that a large number of children were also among
the direct victims of arbitrary execution, forced disappearance, torture, rape and other violations of
their fundamental rights. Moreover, the armed confrontation left a large number of children
orphaned and abandoned, especially among the Mayan population, who saw their families destroyed
and the possibility of living a normal childhood within the norms of their culture, lost.
Women
29. The CEH's investigation has revealed that approximately a quarter of the direct victims of
human rights violations and acts of violence were women. They were killed, tortured and raped,
sometimes because of their ideals and political or social participation, sometimes in massacres or
other indiscriminate actions. Thousands of women lost their husbands, becoming widows and the
sole breadwinners for their children, often with no material resources after the scorched earth poli-
cies resulted in the destruction of their homes and crops. Their efforts to reconstruct their lives and
support their families deserve special recognition.
30. At the same time, the CEH recognises the fact that women, the majority of them relatives of vic-
tims, played an exemplary role in the defence of human rights during the armed confrontation, promot-
ing and directing organisations for relatives of the disappeared and for the struggle against impunity.
The Mayan population as the collective enemy of the State
31. In the years when the confrontation deepened (1978-1983), as the guerrilla support base and
area of action expanded, Mayans as a group in several different parts of the country were identified
by the Army as guerrilla allies. Occasionally this was the result of the effective existence of sup-
port for the insurgent groups and of pre-insurrectional conditions in the country's interior.
However, the CEH has ascertained that, in the majority of cases, the identification of Mayan com-
munities with the insurgency was intentionally exaggerated by the State, which, based on tradi-
tional racist prejudices, used this identification to eliminate any present or future possibilities of
the people providing help for, or joining, an insurgent project.
32. The consequence of this manipulation, extensively documented by the CEH, was massive and
indiscriminate aggression directed against communities independent of their actual involvement
in the guerrilla movement and with a clear indifference to their status as a non-combatant civilian
population. The massacres, scorched earth operations, forced disappearances and executions of
Mayan authorities, leaders and spiritual guides, were not only an attempt to destroy the social base
of the guerrillas, but above all, to destroy the cultural values that ensured cohesion and collective
action in Mayan communities.
24
Racism as a component of violence
33. Through its investigation, the CEH also concludes that the undeniable existence of racism
expressed repeatedly by the State as a doctrine of superiority, is a basic explanatory factor for the
indiscriminate nature and particular brutality with which military operations were carried out
against hundreds of Mayan communities in the west and north-west of the country, especially
between 1981 and 1983 when more than half the massacres and scorched earth operations occurred.
Retreat of the guerrillas
34. The CEH has confirmed that the guerrillas applied a tactic of "armed propaganda" and tem-
porary occupation of towns to gain supporters or demonstrate their strength; once they withdrew
however, they left the communities defenceless and vulnerable. In many cases, communities were
then attacked by the Army, with a very high civilian death toll, especially among the Mayan pop-
ulation. In some of the cases known to the CEH, whole villages were razed by state military forces
just days after the insurgent groups withdrew. In these cases, although acknowledging the Army's
clear and sole responsibility for the massive violations, the CEH is convinced that guerrilla actions
had a bearing on the way these events occurred.
35. Faced with scorched earth operations and massacres, which were a part of the Army's strategy
and the result of systematic planning, the guerrillas were unable to protect the people who had
sympathised with their objectives or had supported them. This inability created a broad sense of
abandonment, deception and rejection in these sectors.
Militarization
36. The CEH has confirmed that the militarization of the State and society was a strategic objec-
tive which was defined, planned and executed institutionally by the Guatemalan Army, based on
the National Security Doctrine and the institution's particular interpretation of the national real-
ity. The process of militarization passed through different stages during the years of the armed con-
frontation. It began during the 1960s and 70s with the Army's domination of the structures of the
executive branch. The Army subsequently assumed almost absolute power for half a decade dur-
ing the 1980s, by penetrating all of the country's institutions, as well as its political, social and
ideological spheres; in the final stage of the confrontation, it developed a parallel, semi-visible, low
profile, but high impact, control of national life.
37. Militarization was one of the factors that provided the incentive for and fed the armed con-
frontation as it profoundly limited the possibilities for exercising rights as citizens. Subsequently, it
became one of the most damaging consequences of the confrontation. Militarization became a pillar
of impunity. Moreover, in a broad sense, it weakened the country's institutions, reducing their possi-
bilities for functioning effectively and contributing to their loss of legitimacy, since for years people
have lived with the certainty that it is the Army that retains effective power in Guatemala.
25
Military intelligence
38. Based on its investigation, the CEH also concludes that military intelligence structures in
Guatemala played a decisive role in the militarization of the country. These structures assumed
functions beyond those normally assigned to intelligence systems within the framework of the
democratic rule of law, namely the systematisation and interpretation of information important to
the country's security. Instead, the Guatemalan intelligence system became the driving force of a
state policy that took advantage of the situation resulting from the armed confrontation, to con-
trol the population, the society, the State and the Army itself. This total domination was based on
a political-military strategy and was put into practice using mechanisms which violated human
rights, the Constitution and the laws of the Republic.
39. The CEH has confirmed that the control exercised by military intelligence depended not
only on its formal structures, but also on an extensive network of informants who infiltrated
social organisations, communities and various state institutions, thus giving it access to a vast
quantity of information. Thus it was able to manage other structures of the Army and to manip-
ulate the different interests and entities of the Guatemalan State and civil society. One of the
objectives of incorporating intelligence operatives into state institutions was to multiply their
informational resources and capacity for psychological warfare. At the same time, intelligence
agents infiltrated social organisations where many activists subsequently became the victims of
grave human rights violations.
40. The CEH's investigation has corroborated the involvement of military intelligence services in
unconventional and irregular operations far removed from any legal order. Its illegal operations
were secret, in both their preparation and execution. The purpose of these missions was to guar-
antee that the work remained covert, so that the intellectual and material perpetrators of the inci-
dents could not be identified, to exonerate state agents of any responsibility and thereby to assure
the ineffectiveness of any judicial or police investigation.
41 . This clandestine activity was evident in the use of illegal detention centres or "clandestine
prisons", which existed in nearly all Guatemalan Army facilities, in many police installations and
even in homes and on other private premises. In these places, victims were not only deprived of
their liberty arbitrarily, but they were almost always subjected to interrogation, accompanied by
torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment. In the majority of cases, the detainees were
disappeared or executed. In a few cases detainees were set free, but no judicial procedure was fol-
lowed. Sometimes, victims were forced to work illegally and secretly for the Army in exchange
for their partial freedom. The occasions when a detainee was brought before a competent court
were an exception.
ie Kaibiles
The substantiation of the degrading contents of the training of the Army's special counter-
igency force, known as Kaibiles, has drawn the particular attention of the CEH. This training
uded killing animals and then eating them raw and drinking their blood in order to demon-
j courage. The extreme cruelty of these training methods, according to testimony available to
26
the CEH, was then put into practice in a range of operations carried out by these troops, confirm-
ing one point of their decalogue: "The Kaibil is a killing machine."
A militari2ed police
43. The CEH concludes that the National Police and the Treasury Police, two important state
security forces, also committed numerous and grave human rights violations during the armed
confrontation. Beginning in the mid-1960s, these forces were subordinated to Army control, a sit-
uation that was maintained throughout the confrontation. Often acting under Army orders, the
"Judicials", members of detective units and other plain-clothes police, became the principal agents
of state terror in Guatemala City for a period of almost twenty years.
Terror
44. The CEH confirmed that throughout the armed confrontation the Army designed and imple-
mented a strategy to provoke terror in the population. This strategy became the core element of
the Army's operations, including those of a strictly military nature as well those of psychological
nature and those that were called "development" operations.
45. The guerrilla organisations committed violent and extremely cruel acts, which terrorised
people and had significant consequences. Arbitrary executions, especially those committed
before relatives and neighbours, accentuated the already prevalent climate of fear, arbitrariness
and defencelessness.
46. The State's use of terror intensified in Guatemala in 1966, when a process was initiated whose
worst stages took place during the periods of maximum violence and whose epicentres were locat-
ed in areas of most intense repression. A high proportion of the human rights violations known to
the CEH and committed by the Army or security forces were perpetrated publicly and with
extreme brutality, especially in the Mayan communities of the country's interior. Likewise, in con-
sidering the training methods of the Armed Forces, and especially the Kaibiles, the CEH concludes
that extreme cruelty was a resource used intentionally to produce and maintain a climate of terror
in the population.
47. The terror created was not just a result of the acts of violence or the military operations; it was
also generated and sustained by other related mechanisms, such as impunity for the perpetrators,
extensive campaigns to criminalise the victims and the forced involvement of civilians in the causal
sequence leading up to the actual execution of atrocities. For these reasons, terror does not auto-
matically disappear when the levels of violence decrease; on the contrary, there are cumulative and
lasting effects, which, to overcome, require time, effort and the direct experience that things have
changed.
48. The investigation has established that beyond the physical elimination of opponents, either
alleged or real, state terror was applied to make it clear that those who attempted to assert their
rights, and even their relatives, ran the risk of death by the most hideous means. The objective was
27
to intimidate and silence society as a whole, in order to destroy the will for transformation, both
in the short and long term.
Criminalisation of victims
49. The State also tried to stigmatise and blame the victims and the country's social organisations,
making them into criminals in the public eye and thus into "legitimate" targets for repression.
This was done by stripping them of their dignity as individuals, using fire and sword to teach
them the lesson that the exercise of their rights as citizens could mean death. The CEH considers
that this systematic indoctrination has profoundly marked the collective consciousness of
Guatemalan society. Fear, silence, apathy and lack of political participation are some of the most
important effects of having criminalised the victims, and present a serious obstacle to the active
participation of all citizens in the construction of democracy.
Forced complicity in the violence
50. The CEH counts among the most damaging effects of the confrontation those that resulted
from forcing large sectors of the population to be accomplices in the violence, especially through
their participation in the Civil Patrols (PAC), the paramilitary structures created by the Army in
1981 in most of the Republic. The CEH is aware of hundreds of cases in which civilians were
forced by the Army, at gun point, to rape women, torture, mutilate corpses and kill. This extreme
cruelty was used by the State to cause social disintegration. A large proportion of the male popu-
lation over the age of fifteen, especially in the Mayan communities, was forced to participate in the
PAC. This deeply affected values and behavioural patterns, as violence became a normal method of
confronting conflictive situations and promoted contempt for the lives of others.
Local arbitrary power
51. Of deep and special concern to the CEH is that this process created a sector of civilians who
subsequently, as a result of their convictions, committed atrocities against their own neighbours
and even against close relatives. An uncontrolled armed power was created, which was able to act
arbitrarily in villages, pursuing private and abusive ends.
52. The coexistence of victims and perpetrators in the same villages reproduces the climate of fear
and silence. For the victims, daily confrontation with their transgressors has kept the painful
memory of their violation alive. The CEH has confirmed that, for fear of reprisals, a large number
of people continue to remain silent about their past and present suffering, while the internalisa-
tion of traumas prevents the healing of their wounds.
Altered mourning and clandestine cemeteries
53. The testimonies received by the CEH bear witness to the wide range of circumstances which
28
during the armed confrontation, prevented thousands of Guatemalans from observing the rites that
normally accompany the death and burial of a person. This has caused deep and persisting anguish
in those sectors of the population affected. Forced disappearance was the most pernicious practise in
this sense, due to the uncertainty regarding the whereabouts or fate of the victim. Likewise, the cli-
mate of terror, the military presence, as well as other circumstances related to the massacres, to
flight and to persecution in the mountains, often prevented the burial of the dead. For all cultures
and religions in Guatemala, it is practically inconceivable that the dead not be given a dignified
burial; this assaults everyone's values and dignity. For the Mayans, this is of particular importance
due to their core belief in the active bond between the living and the dead. The lack of a sacred place
where this bond can be attended is a serious concern that appears in testimonies from many Mayan
communities.
54. The CEH has concluded that the existence of clandestine and hidden cemeteries, as well as the
anxiety suffered by many Guatemalans as a result of not knowing what happened to their relatives,
remains an open wound in the country. They are a permanent reminder of the acts of violence that
denied the dignity of their loved ones. To heal these particular wounds requires the exhumation of
secret graves, as well as the definitive identification of the whereabouts of the disappeared.
Social effects of torture
55. The CEH concludes that the systematic use of torture resulted in two fundamental social
problems: firstly, the formation and continuing presence in society of experts trained in the most
efficient and deviant ways of applying pain to human beings to crush them physically and spiri-
tually; secondly, the normalisation of the use of torture as something "normal" in the routine work
of state military and police structures, especially among members of military intelligence struc-
tures, and the toleration of this by society and by judicial officials.
Impunity
56. The justice system, nonexistent in large areas of the country before the armed confrontation,
was further weakened when the judicial branch submitted to the requirements of the dominant
national security model. The CEH concludes that, by tolerating or participating directly in
impunity, which concealed the most fundamental violations of human rights, the judiciary became
functionally inoperative with respect to its role of protecting the individual from the State, and
lost all credibility as guarantor of an effective legal system. This allowed impunity to become one
of the most important mechanisms for generating and maintaining a climate of terror.
57. These factors combined to thwart the existence of the rule of law in Guatemala. Likewise, a.
deep-rooted scepticism developed in society regarding the value of improving Guatemala's legal
system and of believing that the administration of justice system could be an effective option for
the construction of a society of equally free and dignified individuals. Thus, one of the most chal-
lenging and complex tasks in the establishment of peace consists of restoring the basic system,
making it available to and functional for all citizens, so that social groups as well as individuals jj
may channel their demands and conflicts through competent state institutions. |
29
The weakening of social organisations
58. The CEH has confirmed that during the armed confrontation, social organisations were an
important target of the State's repressive action. Considered as part of the "internal enemy", hun-
dreds of leaders and grassroots members of a wide spectrum of groups were eliminated. These
actions left civil society weakened and still affect its full participation in Guatemala's political and
economic debates. The loss of professionals, academics and researchers, the "creative powers" who
died or went into exile, not only created a vacuum during a specific period of political and cultural
history, but also resulted in the loss of an important part of the pedagogic and intellectual capac-
ity to educate several future generations in Guatemala.
59. As well as repression and exile, the weakening and fragmentation of social organisations
were largely due to the various mechanisms activated during the armed confrontation by the
State to destroy them. These mechanisms continue to be present in the collective memory.
Stigmatisation, fear, mistrust and the perception in some sectors that the signing of the peace
accords has not yet changed the repressive State, are still obstacles which prevent the full par-
ticipation of society, even though the process of peace and national reconciliation indicates an
encouraging reversal of this tendency.
60. The participation by members of insurgent groups in social organisations also affected them, not
only because it created one more reason for their repression, but also because in many cases it led to
division, polarisation and serious in-fighting in the organisations, inevitably weakening them. The
vertical structure that the insurgency brought to the social organisations in which it participated cur-
tailed their freedom to make their own decisions, suffocating their autonomy and exacerbating the
effects of the State's repressive policies of dismantling the country's social and political opposition.
Curtailed freedom of speech
61 . Freedom of speech goes hand in hand with the free exercise of civil rights. When opportuni-
ties for social and political participation are closed, then, implicitly, so are opportunities for free-
dom of speech. During the long period of armed confrontation, even thinking critically was a dan-
gerous act in Guatemala, and to write about political and social realities, events or ideas, meant
running the risk of threats, torture, disappearance and death. In exercising freedom of speech, cit-
izens, writers, artists, poets, politicians and journalists were subject to the risks that repression and
ideological polarisation imposed upon them. Although there were people who spoke out despite
the risks, the large news agencies, in general, supported the authoritarian regimes through self-
censorship and distortion of the facts. The price was very high, not only in the number of lives lost,
but also because Guatemala became a country silenced, a country incommunicado.
Damage to the Mayan communities
62. The CEH concludes that the Mayan communities also became a military objective during the
bloodiest years of the confrontation. In some regions and years, because of the terror and persecu-
tion, Mayans were obliged to conceal their ethnic identity, manifested externally in their language
30
and dress. Militarization of the communities disturbed the cycle of celebrations and ceremonies,
and concealment of their rituals became progressively more widespread. Aggression was directed
against elements of profound symbolic significance for the Mayan culture, as in the case of the
destruction of corn and the killing of their elders. These events had a serious impact on certain ele-
ments of Mayan identity and disturbed the transmission of their culture from generation to gen-
eration. Similarly, the culture was degraded through the use of Mayan names and symbols for task
forces and other military structures.
63. Beginning in 1982, traditional Mayan authorities were generally substituted by delegates
from the armed forces, such as military commissioners and PAC commanders. In other cases, the
Army tried to control, co-opt and infiltrate the traditional Mayan authority structures. This strat-
egy caused the rupture of both community mechanisms and the oral transmission of knowledge of
their own culture, likewise damaging Mayan norms and values of respect and service to the com-
munity. In their stead, authoritarian practices and the arbitrary use of power were introduced.
64. The presence of the guerrillas also led to the displacement of traditional authorities and to a
reduction of their power, especially through the establishment of their own authority structures,
such as the Local Irregular Forces and the Local Clandestine Committees, which generated new
leadership within the communities.
Massive forced displacement
65. Unprecedented terror, provoked by the massacres and the devastation of complete villages
during the period 1981 to 1983, led to the flight en masse of a diverse population, the majority
of which was Mayan, but which also included a considerable number of Ladino families, especial-
ly in the newly settled areas close to the Mexican border. The forced displacement of civilians in
Guatemala stands out in the history of the armed confrontation because of its massive nature and
its destructive force. It embodies the rupture of social fabric in its most direct and heart-rending
form. Families and communities were fractured and cohesive cultural ties weakened.
]
66. Estimates of the number of displaced persons vary from 500,000 to a million and a half peo-
ple in the most intense period from 1981 to 1983, including those who were displaced internally
and those who were obliged to seek refuge abroad. The variation in these figures reflects the chang-
ing nature of this displacement. About 150,000 people sought safety in Mexico. Almost a third of $
these settled in camps and were given refugee status by the United Nations High Commissioner
for Refugees (UNHCR). Another 50,000 people lived as refugees dispersed throughout Chiapas,
while the remainder settled in the Mexican capital or other Mexican cities. People also fled, though
in far fewer numbers, into Honduras and Belize, as well as to the United States of America.
However, all shared similar experiences: the loss of relatives and the destruction of their property,
often the entire family heritage accumulated over generations, as well as the violent change in the
course of their lives.
67. Through its investigation, the CEH has confirmed that those who fled were forced to move j
constantly while they remained in the country, mainly to evade military operations directed J
against them despite their being defenceless, and partly to search for food, water and shelter.
31
Military persecution, being constantly on the move and the threat of death made their subsistence
extremely difficult. Living exposed to the elements, malnutrition and the severe emotional trau-
mas that resulted from having witnessed numerous atrocities, left people vulnerable, especially
children and the elderly, a great number of whom died during the flight and displacement.
Militarised resettlement and the stigma of the displaced
68. From 1983 onwards, Army strategy towards the displaced population was designed to bring
it under military control: amnesties were offered and those who accepted were resettled in highly
militarised communities. The most important mechanisms for ensuring control of the resettle-
ments were: the organisation of people in the PAC, the military appointment of the mayors and
auxiliary mayors, the creation of the Interinstitutional Co-ordinators to ensure military control of
state and social institutions at all jurisdictional levels, the expansion of the Army's Civil Affairs (S-
5) activities that included psychological operations to "re-educate" the people and the construc-
tion of model villages in the most conflictive regions.
69. The CEH has confirmed that the stigmatisation by the State of the displaced population, in
many cases, fomented and perpetuated divisions in their communities. In accusing the displaced peo-
ple of being guerrillas or in spreading the message that they were responsible for the confrontation,
their return to their places of origin was hindered and they were marginalised by those who had
remained in these communities. For internally displaced persons detained during the course of mil-
itary operations or those who gave themselves up to the authorities in order to return to their com-
munities, the situation was even more complicated. Very often they were isolated for a time in spe-
cial camps or in military bases, submitted to interrogation and to an intense re-education process.
The anonymity of displaced persons in Guatemala City
70. In the case of people who sought refuge in Guatemala City, the fear of being located and iden-
tified as a target of repression meant that they sought anonymity as a survival strategy, given that
their place of origin, their name and even the lack of personal documents could have been reason
to suspect them of ties to the insurgent movement.
Resistance and the identity of the displaced
71. The testimonies of the internally displaced received by the CEH reveal an attitude both of
resistance to military control and in defence of life, not only in its physical sense, but also with
regard to cultural and political identity. Resistance as astrategy to preserve identity took various
forms, and in turn produced changes in that very identity. Interactions with other ethnic groups,
inhabitants of the city, people from other countries, other educational systems and different nat-
ural environments, as well as the experience of persecution and death, transformed relationships
that constitute this sense of identity, producing a Guatemalan society marked by confrontation,
but also potentially strengthened by its experience of diversity.
32
The economic costs of the armed confrontation
72. Based on its investigation of the economic costs of the armed confrontation and taking only
the 10-year period between 1980 and 1989, the CEH estimates that the total direct quantifiable
costs were equivalent to zero production in Guatemala for almost 15 months, equal to 121% of
the 1990 Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
73. The majority of the costs, equivalent to 90% of the 1990 GDP, resulted from the loss of pro-
duction potential due to the death, disappearance or forced displacement of individuals who had
to abandon their daily activities, or from recruitment into the PAC, the Army or the guerrillas.
The destruction of physical assets, including private and community property, and the loss of infra-
structure, such as bridges and electrical towers, also represented considerable losses, over 6% of the
1990 GDP. These material losses frequently involved the total destruction of family capital, espe-
cially among Mayan families, particularly in the west and north-west of Guatemala.
74. Based on its investigation, the CEH concludes that the increase in military spending during
the armed confrontation diverted necessary investments of public resources away from health and
education, resulting in the abandonment of social development. This accelerated the deterioration
of health and educational conditions in those areas most severely affected by the confrontation.
75. The armed confrontation also exacerbated the traditional weakness of the State regarding tax
collection and intensified private sector opposition to necessary tax reform. This was reflected by
the fact that during the period from 1978 to 1984 taxes as a percentage of GDP dropped con-
stantly, in the final year reaching 7.1%, the lowest level registered over the previous 50 years. The
effects were decisive: the gap between income and spending widened, leading to macroeconomic
imbalance and further weakening the State's capacity to promote development.
76. Guatemala's macroeconomic performance during the 1980s compared with that of other coun-
tries in the region, particularly Honduras and Costa Rica, suggests that a consequence of the inter-
nal armed confrontation was the loss of opportunity for economic growth, which during the decade
under study was the equivalent to about 14% of the 1990 GDP. Similarly, there were other non-
quantifiable costs related to the destruction of human and social capital in the country which, along
with the direct economic losses they represent, seriously limited the future development of the
Guatemalan State and society. The CEH has concluded that society as a whole, and not just those :
people directly affected, has had to assume the high costs that resulted from the confrontation. 4
Solidarity and the defence of human rights
77. The CEH concludes that repression did more than generate terror, passivity and silenced
Simultaneously, and with varying intensity at different stages of the armed confrontation, indi,
vidual and collective responses arose to the dehumanising and denigrating effects of violencej
Hindered by enormous obstacles, the organisations that emerged from this process dedicated thetf
efforts to the defence of life, even when this implied living under the threat of death. Compose^
mainly of the surviving communities and relatives of the victims, their essential raison d'etre .
human solidarity, the defence of basic human rights and the desire for respect for dignity and ji
33
At the same time, they also contributed to reclaiming people's rights as citizens within the coun-
try's legal framework.
78- Human rights organisations made decisive contributions to establishing new principles of
social relations and to reconstructing the social fabric. Although these organisations emerged from
those sectors most affected by the confrontation, their claims immediately extended to other sec-
tors of society. Particularly during the final years of the armed confrontation, taking into account
the close relationship between impunity for those who used systematic violence and the persistent
militarization of society, various civic groups sought strategies to wrest away the Army's power and
its pre-eminence in Guatemalan social and political life. The CEH considers that these efforts pro-
moted a new awareness of the need for justice, respect for the law, and the validity of the rule of
law as basic requirements of democracy.
The Mayan movement
79. In the judgement of the CEH, during the later years of the armed confrontation the Mayan move-
ment affirmed its role as a key political actor. In the struggle against exclusions suffered since the foun-
dation of the Guatemalan State, the Mayan people has made important contributions in the area of
multiculturality and peace. These provide the essential bases for society as a whole to review its histo-
ry and commit itself to building a new project of nationhood consistent with its multiculturality,
which should be inclusive, tolerant and proud of the wealth implicit in its cultural differences.
II. Human rights violations, acts of violence
AND ASSIGNMENT OF RESPONSIBILITY
Human rights violations committed by the State
80. Those acts which are directly attributable to the State include those perpetrated by its public
servants and state agencies. Additionally, the State holds direct responsibility for the actions of
civilians to whom it delegated, dejure or de facto, authority to act on its behalf, or with its consent,
acquiescence or knowledge. This includes military commissioners who were by law, agents of mil-
itary authority; Civil Patrol members, insofar as the military authorities organised, directed or
ordered them or had knowledge of their actions; the large land-owners who were granted police
functions by the 1936 Penal Code; and any other third party that may have acted under the direc-
tion or with the knowledge of state agents.
81 . The State must also respond for breaches in the legal obligation to investigate, try and pun-
ish human right violations, even when these were not committed directly by state agents or when
the State may not have had initial knowledge of them.
82. Human rights violations and acts of violence attributable to actions by the State represent
93% of those registered by the CEH; they demonstrate that human rights violations caused by
state repression were repeated, and that, although varying in intensity, were prolonged and con-
tinuous, being especially severe from 1978 to 1984, a period during which 91% of the violations
34
documented by the CEH were committed. Eighty-five percent of all cases of human rights viola-
tions and acts of violence registered by the CEH are attributable to the Army, acting either alone
or in collaboration with another force, and 18%, to the Civil Patrols, which were organised by the
armed forces.
Anti-communism and the National Security Doctrine
83. Using the National Security Doctrine as its justification, and acting in the name of anti-commu-
nism, crimes were committed which include the kidnapping and assassination of political activists,
students, trade unionists and human rights advocates, all categorised as "subversives"; the forced dis-
appearance of political and social leaders and poor peasants; and the systematic use of torture.
84. During most of the internal armed confrontation, attempts to form organisations for the
defence of human rights resulted in the elimination of their leaders. In the 1980s, the appearance
of new groups of human rights defenders in various areas was received by the State with intensive
repression which resulted in the murder or disappearance of many of their members. Campaigns
directed towards discrediting this type of organisation, presenting them as "subversive", were one
of the constants of the repression.
Massacres and the devastation of the Mayan people
85. The Army's perception of Mayan communities as natural allies of the guerrillas contributed
to increasing and aggravating the human rights violations perpetrated against them, demon-
strating an aggressive racist component of extreme cruelty that led to the extermination en masse,
of defenceless Mayan communities purportedly linked to the guerrillas - including children,
women and the elderly — through methods whose cruelty has outraged the moral conscience of
the civilised world.
86. These massacres and the so-called scorched earth operations, as planned by the State, resulted
in the complete extermination of many Mayan communities, along with their homes, cattle, crops
and other elements essential to survival. The CEH registered 626 massacres attributable to these
forces.
87. The CEH has noted particularly serious cruelty in many acts committed by agents of the State,
especially members of the Army, in their operations against Mayan communities. The counterin-
surgency strategy not only led to violations of basic human rights, but also to the fact that these
crimes were committed with particular cruelty, with massacres representing their archetypal form.
In the majority of massacres there is evidence of multiple acts of savagery, which preceded, accom-
panied or occurred after the deaths of the victims. Acts such as the killing of defenceless children,
often by beating them against walls or throwing them alive into pits where the corpses of adults
were later thrown; the amputation of limbs; the impaling of victims; the killing of persons by cov-
ering them in petrol and burning them alive; the extraction, in the presence of others, of the vis-
cera of victims who were still alive; the confinement of people who had been mortally tortured, in
agony for days; the opening of the wombs of pregnant women, and other similarly atrocious acts,
35
were not only actions of extreme cruelty against the victims, but also morally degraded the per-
petrators and those who inspired, ordered or tolerated these actions.
88. During the armed confrontation the cultural rights of the Mayan people were also violated.
The Army destroyed ceremonial centres, sacred places and cultural symbols. Language and dress,
as well as other elements of cultural identification, were targets of repression. Through the mili-
tarization of the communities, the establishment of the PAC and the military commissioners, the
legitimate authority structure of the communities was broken; the use of their own norms and pro-
cedures to regulate social life and resolve conflicts was prevented; the exercise of Mayan spiritual-
ity and the Catholic religion was obstructed, prevented or repressed; the maintenance and devel-
opment of the indigenous peoples' way of life and their system of social organisation was upset.
Displacement and refuge exacerbated the difficulties of practising their own culture.
Disappearances
89. The CEH has concluded that in Guatemala forced disappearance was a systematic practise
which in nearly all cases was the result of intelligence operations. The objective was to disarticu-
late the movements or organisations identified by the State as favourable to the insurgency, as well
as to spread terror among the people. The victims of these disappearances were peasants, social and
student leaders, professors, political leaders, members of religious communities and priests, and
even members of military or paramilitary organisations that fell under suspicion of collaborating
with the enemy. Those responsible for these forced disappearances violated fundamental human
rights.
Arbitrary executions
90. The CEH concludes that the Guatemalan State repeatedly and systematically violated the
right to life, through what this Report has called arbitrary executions. In many cases this was
aggravated by extreme irreverence, as for instance, in situations in which the corpses were aban-
doned with evident indications of torture, mutilation, multiple bullet holes or burn marks. The
perpetrators of these violations were Army officers, specialists and troops, death squads that either
operated under the protection of the authorities or with members of these authorities, members of
the Civil Patrols or military commissioners, and in certain cases, private individuals, specifically
large land owners, with the consent or direct collaboration of state authorities.
The rape of women
91. The CEH's investigation has demonstrated that the rape of women, during torture or before
being murdered, was a common practice aimed at destroying one of the most intimate and vul-
nerable aspects of the individual's dignity. The majority of rape victims were Mayan women. Those
who survived the crime still suffer profound trauma as a result of this aggression, and the com-
munities themselves were deeply offended by this practice. The presence of sexual violence in the
social memory of the communities has become a source of collective shame.
36
The death squads
92. Some of the human rights violations were committed by means of covert operations. The
military had clandestine units called "commandos" or "special squads" whose supplies, vehicles,
arms, funding and operational instructions were provided by the regular structures of the Army,
especially military intelligence. The work of these squads not only included execution and kid-
napping, but also the development of counterinsurgency tactics of psychological war, propa-
ganda and intimidation.
93. "Death squads" were also used; these were initially criminal groups made up of private indi-
viduals who enjoyed the tolerance and complicity of state authorities. The CEH has arrived at the
well-founded presumption that, later, various actions committed by these groups were a conse-
quence of decisions by the Army command, and that the composition of the death squads varied
over time as members of the military were incorporated, until they became, in some cases, authen-
tic clandestine military units. Their objective was to eliminate alleged members, allies or collab-
orators of the "subversives" using the help of civilians and lists prepared by military intelligence.
The various names of the better known "death squads", such as, MANO (National Organised
Action Movement), also known as Mano Blanca (White Hand) because of its logo, NOA (New
Anti-Communist Organisation), CADEG (Anti-Communist Council of Guatemala), Ojo por Ojo
(Eye for an Eye) and Jaguar Justiciero (Jaguar of Justice) and ESA (Secret Anti-Communist Army),
were simply the transient names of the clandestine military units whose purpose was to eliminate
the alleged members, allies or collaborators of "subversion".
The denial of justice
94. The courts were incapable of investigating, trying, judging and punishing even a small num-
ber of those responsible for the most serious human rights crimes, or of providing protection for
the victims. This conclusion can be applied both to military tribunals charged with the investiga-
tion and punishment of crimes committed by individuals within their special jurisdiction, as well
as to the ordinary justice system; the former, because it was part of the military apparatus involved
in the confrontation, and the latter, because it had given up exercising its functions of protecting
and safeguarding the rights of the individual.
95. Acts and omissions by the judicial branch, such as the systematic denial of habeas corpus, con-
tinuous interpretation of the law favourable to the authorities, indifference to the torture of
detainees and limitations on the right to defence demonstrated the judges' lack of independence.
These constituted grave violations of the right to due process and serious breaches of the State's
duty to investigate, try and punish human rights violations. The few judges that kept their inde-
pendence and did not relinquish the exercise of their tutelary functions, were victims of repressive
acts, including murder and threats, especially during the 1980s.
96. The CEH concludes that the rights to life and due process of those citizens that the
Government of Guatemala put on trial in the Courts of Special Jurisdiction, were also seriously
violated, particularly in the numerous cases in which the death penalty was imposed.
37
Forced and discriminatory military recruitment
97. During the entire period of the internal armed confrontation, the Guatemalan Army illegal-
ly forced thousands of young men into the army to participate directly in hostilities. Forced
recruitment, which discriminated against the Mayan people and included minors under the age of
fifteen, was a violation of personal freedom.
The legal order affected
98. The CEH concludes that the events referred to herein are grave violations of international
human rights law whose precepts the Guatemalan State has been committed to respect since it
approved the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the American Declaration of the Rights
and Obligations of Man in 1948. The fundamental principles of human rights have achieved the
category of international customary law.
99. The gravity of this conclusion is accentuated by the fact that some of these violations, espe-
cially arbitrary executions, forced disappearances and torture, were repeated throughout the entire
internal armed confrontation, at some stages becoming systematic. This obliges the authorities of
the Guatemalan State to accept historical responsibility for these violations before the Guatemalan
people and the international community.
1 00. As regards international humanitarian law, which contains the obligatory rules for all armed
conflicts (including non-international armed conflicts), the CEH concludes that Guatemalan State
agents, the majority of whom were members of the Army, flagrantly committed acts prohibited by
Common Article III of the 1949 Geneva Conventions, particularly with respect to attacks against
life and bodily integrity, mutilation, cruel treatment, torture and torment, the taking of hostages,
attacks on personal dignity, and particularly humiliating and degrading treatment, including the
rape of women. Therefore, the State of Guatemala, which was legally obliged to comply with these
precepts and prohibitions throughout the confrontation, is responsible for these infractions.
1 01 . The CEH concludes that the State of Guatemala, especially its Army, failed to make the
distinction that applies in all types of armed conflicts, between combatants and non-combatants,
that is, between those who participate directly in hostilities resorting to arms for self-defence or
for neutralising the enemy, and the civilian population that does not take part in hostilities,
including those who previously participated, but no longer do so because they were wounded,
became sick or laid down their arms.
102. Neither did the State of Guatemala respect the distinction between military targets and
civilian property, proceeding to destroy, at great harm to the people, private and community prop-
erty which, due to their nature, location, objective or use, were not military targets. Evidence of
violations of these principles can be found in the multiple scorched earth operations and in regis-
tered cases of property destruction, as well as in the destruction of the collectively worked fields
and harvests, which was a specific objective of the military plan, Firmness 83-1-
103. Moreover, the CEH concludes that the events presented in this report are grave violations of
38
common principles that unite international human rights law and international humanitarian law.
These principles were an historical demand of peoples who have faced unacceptable acts of barbari-
ty during the twentieth century, events which never should be forgotten or repeated.
1 04. Finally, the CEH concludes that all these actions openly violate the rights guaranteed by the
different constitutions of Guatemala in existence during the internal armed confrontation.
Institutional responsibility
105. The majority of human rights violations occurred with the knowledge or by order of the
highest authorities of the State. Evidence from different sources (declarations made by previous
members of the armed forces, documentation, declassified documents, data from various organisa-
tions, testimonies of well-known Guatemalans) all coincide with the fact that the intelligence ser-
vices of the Army, especially the G-2 and the Presidential General Staff (Estado Mayor Presidential,
obtained information about all kinds of individuals and civic organisations, evaluated their behav-
iour in their respective fields of activity, prepared lists of those actions that were to be repressed
for their supposedly subversive character and proceeded accordingly to capture, interrogate, tor-
ture, forcibly disappear or execute these individuals.
1 06. The responsibility for a large part of these violations, with respect to the chain of military
command as well as the political and administrative responsibility, reaches the highest levels of the
Army and successive governments.
107. The excuse that lower ranking Army commanders were acting with a wide margin of
autonomy and decentralisation without orders from superiors, as a way of explaining that
"excesses" and "errors" were committed, is an unsubstantiated argument according to the CEH's
investigation. The notorious fact that no high-commander, officer or person in the mid-ievel
command of the Army or state security forces was tried Or convicted for violation of human
rights during all these years reinforces the evidence that the majority of these violations were
the result of an institutional policy, thereby ensuring impenetrable impunity, which persisted
during the whole period investigated by the CEH.
Acts of genocide
108. The legal framework adopted by the CEH to analyse the possibility that acts of genocide were
committed in Guatemala during the internal armed confrontation is the Convention on the Preven-
tion and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly
on 9 December 1948 and ratified by the Guatemalan State by Decree 704 on 30 November 1949-
109. Article II of this instrument defines the crime of genocide and its requirements in the fol-
lowing terms:
"... genocide means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy,
in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:
a) Killing members of the group;
39
b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;
c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about
its physical destruction in whole or in part;
d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group."
On this basis, the two fundamental elements of the crime are: intentionality and that the
acts committed include at least one of the five previously cited in the above article.
110. After studying four selected geographical regions, (Maya-Q'anjob'al and Maya-Chuj, in
Barillas, Nenton and San Mateo Ixtatan in North Huehuetenango; Maya-Ixil, in Nebaj, Cotzal and
Chajul, Quiche; Maya-K'iche' in Joyabaj, Zacualpa and Chiche, Quiche; and Maya-Achi in
Rabinal, Baja Verapaz) the CEH is able to confirm that between 1981 and 1983 the Army iden-
tified groups of the Mayan population as the internal enemy, considering them to be an actual or
potential support base for the guerrillas, with respect to material sustenance, a source of recruits
and a place to hide their members. In this way, the Army, inspired by the National Security
Doctrine, defined a concept of internal enemy that went beyond guerrilla sympathisers, combat-
ants or militants to include civilians from specific ethnic groups.
111. Considering the series of criminal acts and human rights violations which occurred in the
regions and periods indicated and which were analysed for the purpose of determining whether they
constituted the crime of genocide, the CEH concludes that the reiteration of destructive acts, direct-
ed systematically against groups of the Mayan population, within which can be mentioned the elim-
ination of leaders and criminal acts against minors who could not possibly have been military tar-
gets, demonstrates that the only common denominator for all the victims was the fact that they
belonged to a specific ethnic group and makes it evident that these acts were committed "with
intent to destroy, in whole or in part" these groups (Article II, first paragraph of the Convention).
112. Among acts aimed at the destruction of Mayan groups, identified by the Army as the enemy,
"killings" deserve special mention (Article Il.a of the Convention), the most significant of which
were the massacres. The CEH has verified that in the four regions studied, between 1981 and 1983,
agents of the State committed killings which were the most serious acts in a series of military oper-
ations directed against the non-combatant civilian population. In accordance with the testimonies
and other elements of evidence collected, the CEH has established that, both regular and special
Army forces, as well as Civil Patrols and military commissioners, participated in those killings char-
acterised as massacres. In many cases, the survivors identified those responsible for directing these
operations as being the commanders of the nearest municipal military outposts.
113. The analysis of the different elements used by the CEH, proves that in the above-mentioned
cases, the aim of the perpetrators was to kill the largest number of group members possible. Prior
to practically all these killings, the Army carried out at least one of the following preparatory
actions: carefully gathering the whole community together; surrounding the community; or util-
ising situations in which the people were gathered together for celebrations or market days.
114. In the analysis of these events in the four regions, the CEH has established that along with
the killings, which in themselves were sufficient to eliminate the groups defined as the enemy,
40
members of the Army or of Civil Patrols systematically committed acts of extreme cruelty, includ-
ing torture and other cruel, inhuman and degrading actions, the effect of which was to terrorise
the population and destroy the foundations of social cohesion, particularly when people were forced
to witness or execute these acts themselves.
115. The CEH concludes that, among those acts perpetrated with the intent to destroy, in
whole or in part, numerous Mayan groups, are included many actions committed which consti-
tuted "serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group" (Article Il.b of the Convention).
The resulting destruction of social cohesion of the group, typical of these acts, corresponds to the
intent to annihilate the group, physically and spiritually.
116. The investigation has also proved that the killings, especially those that were indiscriminate
massacres, were accompanied by the razing of villages. This was most significant in the Ixil region,
where between 70% and 90% of villages were razed. Also, in the north of Huehuetenango, in
Rabinal and in Zacualpa, whole villages were burnt, properties were destroyed and the collective-
ly worked fields and harvests were also burnt, leaving the communities without food.
117. Furthermore, in the four regions which were the object of this special investigation, people
were also persecuted during their displacement. The CEH has established that in the Ixil area, dis-
placed persons were bombed. Similarly, those who were captured or gave themselves up voluntar-
ily continued to be the object of violations, in spite of being under the Army's absolute control.
118. The CEH concludes that some of the acts mentioned in the two previous paragraphs consti-
tute the "deliberate infliction on the group of conditions of life" that could bring about, and in
several cases did bring about, "its physical destruction in whole or in part" (Article II. c. of the
Convention).
119. The CEH's analysis demonstrates that in the execution of these acts, the national military
structures were co-ordinated to allow for the "effective" action of soldiers and members of Civil
Patrols in the four regions studied. Military plan Victory 82, for example, established that "the mis-
sion is to annihilate the guerrillas and parallel organisations"; the military plan Firmness 83-1
determined that the Army should support "their operations with a maximum of PAC members, in
order to raze all collective works..."
1 20. The above has convinced the CEH that acts committed with the intent to destroy, in whole
or in part, numerous groups of Mayans were not isolated acts or excesses committed by soldiers
who were out of control, nor were they the result of possible improvisation by mid-level Army
command. With great consternation, the CEH concludes that many massacres and other human
rights violations committed against these groups obeyed a higher, strategically planned policy,
manifested in actions which had a logical and coherent sequence.
1 21 . Faced with several options to combat the insurgency, the State chose the one that caused the
greatest loss of human life among non-combatant civilians. Rejecting other options, such as a
political effort to reach agreements with disaffected non-combatant civilians, moving of people
away from the conflict areas, or the arrest of insurgents, the State opted for the annihilation of
those they identified as their enemy.
41
1 22. In consequence, the CEH concludes chat agents of the State of Guatemala, within the frame-
work of counterinsurgency operations carried out between 1981 and 1983, committed acts of geno-
cide against groups of Mayan people which lived in the four regions analysed. This conclusion is
based on the evidence that, in light of Article II of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide, the killing of members of Mayan groups occurred (Article ILa), serious
bodily or mental harm was inflicted (Article II. b) and the group was deliberately subjected to liv-
ing conditions calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part (Article II.c). The
conclusion is also based on the evidence that all these acts were committed "with intent to destroy,
in whole or in part" groups identified by their common ethnicity, by reason thereof, whatever the
cause, motive or final objective of these acts may have been (Article II, first paragraph).
123. The CEH has information that similar acts occurred and were repeated in other regions
inhabited by Mayan people.
Institutional responsibility
124. Based on the fundamental conclusion that genocide was committed, the CEH, in keeping
with its mandate to present an objective judgement on the events of the internal armed con-
frontation, indicates that, without prejudice to the fact that the active subjects are the intellectu-
al and material authors of the crimes in the acts of genocide committed in Guatemala, the State is
also responsible, because the majority of these acts were the product of a policy pre-established by
a command superior to the material perpetrators.
1 25. In relation to crimes of genocide, the CEH concludes that the State of Guatemala failed to
comply with the obligation to investigate and punish acts of genocide committed in its territory,
thus contravening the content of Articles IV and VI of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, which specifies that those who have committed genocide,
whether they be heads of state, public officials or private individuals be judged by the competent
courts of the State where the act was committed.
1 26. In general, the State of Guatemala holds undeniable responsibility for human rights viola-
tions and infringements of international humanitarian law. The Chiefs of Staff for National
Defence (Estado Mayor de la Defensa Nacional) was, within the Army, the highest authority
responsible for these violations. Nevertheless, regardless of who occupied positions within this
body, political responsibility rests with the successive governments. For this reason, the President
of the Republic, as Commander in Chief of the Army and Minister of Defence, should be subject
to the same criteria of responsibility, given that national objectives were prepared at the highest
level of Government in accordance with the National Security Doctrine. Furthermore, it should
also be taken into account that until 1986, nearly all the presidents were high level members of
the military, with specific knowledge of military structures and their procedures.
Acts of violence committed by the guerrillas
127. The armed insurgent groups that participated in the internal armed confrontation had an
42
obligation to respect the minimum standards of international humanitarian law that apply to armed
conflicts, as well as the general principles common to international human rights law. Their high
command had the obligation to instruct subordinates to respect these norms and principles.
128. Acts of violence attributable to the guerrillas represent 3% of the violations registered by
the CEH. This contrasts with 93% committed by agents of the State, especially the Army. 2 This
quantitative difference provides new evidence of the magnitude of the State's repressive response.
However, in the opinion of the CEH, this disparity does not lessen the gravity of the unjustifiable
offences committed by the guerrillas against human rights.
Arbitrary executions
1 29. The guerrilla groups committed acts of violence which violated the right to life, through the
arbitrary execution of civilians or individuals, some of whom were defenceless, who were connect-
ed to the confrontation as military commissioners or members of the Civil Patrols, as well as
through the arbitrary execution of members of their own organisations and even massacres.
1 30. The arbitrary executions were decided upon at different levels in the organic structure of the
guerrilla organisations, very often with the participation of their highest military commanders, and
at other times through decisions adopted locally in the presence of delegates from superior levels.
Some of the cases documented by the CEH refer to public executions; on other occasions there were
no witnesses, the victim s corpse being abandoned with some reference to the reason for the action.
131 . The majority of cases documented by the CEH refer to executions perpetrated as part of the
tactics of armed propaganda. Some of these arbitrary executions, particularly of PAC members,
military commissioners and other related persons, were the result of what was called "revolution-
ary terror," consisting in acts of reprisal for collaboration with the Army, outside all regular com-
bat. Executions were even carried out in the presence of the community, to generate terror and thus
force individuals to join the guerrillas.
132. Members of the so-called dominant social class were also victims of arbitrary execution.
These were primarily large landowners and businesspeople who the guerrillas included in their
broad definition of the enemy.
"Revolutionary justice"
133. Under what were known as "shootings," the CEH has registered arbitrary executions of
members of the insurgent groups themselves. In the application of what was called "revolution-
ary justice," in some cases the decision was taken to end the lives of combatants who attempted to
desert, were suspected of collaborating with the enemy and other similar accusations. In any event,
these cases openly violated the right to life and all principles of due process.
2 With regards to other 4% of the violations, either it was not possible to gather sufficient elements of conviction to determine responsibility, or
other groups were involved in them.
43
Massacres
1 34. Massacres, that is, the collective killing of the defenceless population, are also included in
the acts of violence committed by the guerrillas during the confrontation, gravely violating the
right to life. The CEH has knowledge of different acts of this kind which occurred especially
between 1981 and 1982; thirty-two were registered by the CEH. The CEH has reliable informa-
tion that women and children were also killed in some of these massacres.
Forced disappearance and kidnapping
135. There were also some cases of forced disappearance of people kidnapped by the guerrillas,
whose whereabouts have never been discovered. Although it was not generally practised among
insurgent groups, the CEH has also received some testimonies about the use of torture.
1 36. Defenceless people were repeatedly kidnapped by the guerrillas for political objectives or for
the purpose of obtaining economic support in exchange for the person s freedom. Those kidnapped
were well-known Guatemalan political figures, diplomats or business people. In some cases,
including in the case of a foreign ambassador, the persons kidnapped were executed.
Forced recruitment
1 37. The CEH concludes that the guerrillas forcibly recruited civilians, even minors, thus com-
mitting crimes against personal freedom.
The legal framework affected
1 38. In the opinion of the CEH, all the situations described are infractions of Common Article
III of the four 1949 Geneva Conventions. The guerrillas committed serious attacks against the
lives and integrity of individuals, taking hostages and sentencing and summarily executing per-
sons without trial, all acts prohibited by Common Article III, which the guerrillas were obliged
to respect throughout the armed confrontation.
139. The CEH concludes that the guerrilla groups did not always distinguish, as should be
done in all armed conflicts, between combatants and non-combatants, that is, between those
who participate directly in hostilities and the civilian population.
140. Neither did the guerrillas observe the customs and rules of warfare that oblige them to distin-
guish between military targets and civilian property. Offences were committed against private or
community property, which because of their nature, location, objective or use did not contribute
towards obtaining military advantage, and thus caused unjustified damage to the civilian population.
141 . The CEH concludes that the guerrillas, having committed the acts of violence referred to in
this section, and infringed the standards of international humanitarian law, violated the principles
44
common to both this law and to international human rights law.
The responsibility of the guerrillas
142. The CEH is convinced that a large proportion of the cases mentioned occurred with the
knowledge of the guerrilla high military commanders, sometimes because the events derived from
a deliberate political-military strategy and, at other times, because they were conducted in com-
pliance with the decisions taken at the highest level.
143. In consequence, the CEH concludes that the superior levels of the organic structure of the
guerrillas hold undeniable responsibility for offences against the lives of individuals and other vio-
lations of international humanitarian law.
Acts of violence committed by private individuals
144. The CEH concludes that, in connection with the armed confrontation, private individuals
also committed acts of violence in defence of their own interests, either instigating these actions
or directly participating in them. In general, the perpetrators were economically powerful people
at either the national or local level.
1 45. Many human rights violations were committed in rural areas with the participation of large
landowners. Some of these violations were committed jointly with agents of the State, in order to
resolve conflicts with peasants by force. On other occasions, although they were committed directly
by agents or hired assassins of the State, the motive was to protect the interests of these landowners.
146. In urban areas, diverse human rights violations were committed against trade union mem-
bers and labour advisors. These were directly perpetrated by agents of the State or persons acting
with its protection, tolerance or acquiescence and were based on close co-operation between pow-
erful business people and security forces. These acts were committed in order to protect business
interests, in accordance with openly anti-trade union government policies.
III. Peace and Reconciliation
147. At the end of 1996, the Government of President Alvaro Arzu Irigoyen, together with the
URNG, with the participation of the United Nations as moderator and with the support of the
international community, concluded a long negotiating process, by signing the Peace Accords. The
Accords established certain obligations that represent an achievement of incomparable importance
in the national history of recent decades.
148. During the long process in the search for a political solution, begun in 1987, the intensity of
the armed confrontation had diminished considerably. However, during this period, violence,
impunity and the militarization of society still prevailed in Guatemala. Considering that there were
hostile groups that opposed the peace process because of diverse interests and the complexity of the
45
situation, the CEH recognises the admirable effort and courage of those men and women who con-
tributed to the signing of the Accords after nine years of rapprochement and negotiation between the
Parties; the presidents of the Republic over this period and the public officials of the administrations
that participated in the negotiations and initiation of the first conciliatory initiatives; the URNG
Command; the citizens who participated in the National Reconciliation Commission and the
Assembly of Civil Society; as well as the religious sector, especially the Catholic Church. The signif-
icant contribution of Army representatives to this process is also worthy of mention.
149. Similarly, the Congress of the Republic has contributed resolutions in support of peace and recon-
ciliation, which should be broadened, based on the recommendations in this Report by the CEH. Of par-
ticular importance is Resolution 6-98, which was unanimously approved, and which established that:
"historical memory forms part of the social culture and it should serve as an inspira-
tion for reconciliation and peace, so that the events which occurred may never be
repeated in Guatemalan society... [and]
"That in 1980 a group of peasants assumed the suffering, needs and claims of the vast
majority of Guatemalans whose lives hung between poverty and extreme poverty, by
occupying the Spanish Embassy, their sole purpose being to make the world aware of
their situation."
Likewise, Congress resolved, among other points,
"To express solidarity with the relatives of those who gave their lives in order to find
a path to a better future and achieve a firm and lasting peace... [and] to exhort
Guatemalan society to commemorate these events, which are part of the history of
Guatemala..."
150. The armed confrontation has left deep wounds in individuals, in families and in society as a
whole. Due to this undeniable fact, making the Peace Accords a reality and achieving true nation-
al reconciliation, will be a long and complex process. The immediate key tasks that will facilitate
Guatemala's full transition to reconciliation and the observance of the rule of law in a democratic
State are: furthering the demilitarization process of both the State and society; strengthening the
judicial system; opening .up of greater opportunities for effective participation and ensuring repa-
rations for the victims of human rights violations.
151. To achieve true reconciliation and construct a new democratic and participatory nation which
values its multiethnic and pluricultural nature, the whole of society must, among other things,
assume the commitments of the peace process. This doubtless requires a profound and complex
effort, which Guatemalan society owes to the thousands of brave men and women who sought to
obtain full respect for human rights and the democratic rule of law and so laid the foundations for
this new nation. Among these, Monsignor Juan Gerardi Conedera remains at the forefront.
152. With humility and profound respect, the Commission for Historical Clarification dedi-
cates its work to the memory of the dead and other victims of over three decades of fratricidal
violence in Guatemala.
Recommendations
I. Introduction
The Accord of Oslo establishes as one of che three objectives of the CEH that it: "Formulate
specific recommendations to encourage peace and national harmony in Guatemala. The Commission
shall recommend, in particular, measures to preserve the memory of the victims, to foster a culture
of mutual respect and observance of human rights and to strengthen the democratic process."
As expressly noted in other agreements, such as the Comprehensive Agreement on Human
Rights, the Agreement on che Implementation, Compliance and Verification Timetable for the
Peace Agreement and the Agreement on the Basis for the Legal Integration of the Guatemalan
National Revolutionary Unity, the CEH should also outline recommendations for reparatory mea-
sures for the victims of the armed confrontation.
The CEH regarded it as imperative to formulate its recommendations taking into consider-
ation the contents of the Peace Accords. The rigorous application of the Accords, and likewise their
broad dissemination, are essential elements in establishing the foundations of a democratic rule of
law. For this reason, the CEH believes it vital to emphasise and reiterate certain commitments
already established in the Accords.
The methodology followed in preparing the recommendations was based on findings that
arose from the investigation carried out by the CEH and from the extensive process of consulta-
tion of various sectors of civil society. The National Forum on Recommendations, convened by the
CEH and held on 27 May 1998, was attended by 400 people, belonging to 139 organisations from
civil society, and has been a useful source of reflection on those proposals of fundamental impor-
tance to the CEH. The needs and suggestions expressed in the personal testimonies given to the
CEH and during the aforementioned process of consultation were a source of constant reference in
the formulation of this chapter.
The CEH believes it necessary that its recommendations be implemented so that the man-
date entrusted to it within the framework of the peace process achieves its objectives. To accom-
plish this, the joint participation of the State and civil society is necessary, as every Guatemalan
without distinction should benefit from the recommendations.
48
On this basis, the CEH presents its recommendations laid out under the following sections:
1. Measures for the preservation of the memory of the victims;
2. Measures for the compensation of the victims;
3- Measures to foster a culture of mutual respect and observance of human rights;
4. Measures for strengthening the democratic process;
5. Other recommendations to favour peace and national harmony; and,
6. Body responsible for promoting and monitoring the fulfilment of the recommendations.
The effects of the armed confrontation and the violence connected with it were not limited
solely to the two factions. Neither do the victims come only from certain sectors of the population.
Almost all Guatemalans have been affected in one way or another by the violence that has been so
widespread and lasted for such a long period of time. For this reason, the CEH's recommendations
are fundamentally designed to facilitate unity in Guatemala and banish the centuries-old divisions
suffered. Reconciliation is the responsibility of everyone.
The CEH is convinced that construction of peace, founded on the knowledge of the past,
demands that those affected by the armed confrontation and the violence connected with it are lis-
tened to and no longer considered solely as victims, but as the protagonists of a future of national
harmony.
The violence and horrors described in the Report should leave no room for despair.
Subsequent generations in Guatemala have the right to a brighter, better future. Guatemalans can,
and must, encourage a common project of nationhood. To bring about a reconstruction of
Guatemala's social fabric, based on lasting peace and reconciliation, it is vital to foster an authen-
tic sense of national unity among the diversity of peoples that make up the nation. By means of
its recommendations, the CEH aims to help strengthen the hope of the people of Guatemala that
its violent history will never be repeated.
II. Measures to preserve the memory of the victims
The Accord of Oslo emphasises the need to remember and dignify the victims of the fratri-
cidal confrontation that took place in Guatemala. The CEH believes that the historical memory,
both individual and collective, forms the basis of national identity. Remembrance of the victims
is a fundamental aspect of this historical memory and permits the recovery of the values of, and
the validity of the struggle for, human dignity.
On the basis of these considerations, and considering the appeal for forgiveness made by the
President of the Republic on 29 December 1998, and the partial appeal for forgiveness made by
the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity on 19 February 1998, the CEH recommends:
49
Dignity for the victims
1 . That, in the name of the State of Guatemala and with the primary aim of restoring dignity to
the victims, the President of the Republic recognise, before the whole of Guatemalan society,
before the victims, their relatives and their communities, those acts described in this Report, ask
pardon for them and assume responsibility for the Human Rights violations connected with the
internal armed confrontation, particularly for those committed by the Army and the state securi-
ty forces.
2. That the Congress of the Republic issue a solemn declaration reaffirming the dignity and hon-
our of the victims and restoring their good name and that of their relatives.
3. That the ex-Command of the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity, with the primary aim
of restoring dignity to the victims, ask forgiveness, solemnly and publicly, before the whole of soci-
ety, before the victims, their relatives and their communities, and assume responsibility for those
acts of violence committed by the ex-guerrillas connected with the armed confrontation that have
caused the Guatemalan population to suffer.
Remembrance of the victims
4. That the Guatemalan State and society commemorate the victims by means of various activi-
ties carried out in co-ordination with organisations from civil society, among which it is essential
that the following measures be included:
a) Designation of a day of commemoration of the victims (National Day of Dignity for
the Victims of the Violence).
b) The construction of monuments and public parks in memory of the victims at nation-
al, regional and municipal levels.
c) The assigning of names of victims to educational centres, buildings and public high-
ways.
5. That the commemorations and ceremonies for the victims of the armed confrontation take into
consideration the multicultural nature of the Guatemalan nation, to which end the Government
and local authorities should promote and authorise the raising of monuments and the creation of
communal cemeteries in accordance with the forms of Mayan collective memory.
6. That the sacred Mayan sites violated during the armed confrontation are reclaimed and their
importance highlighted in accordance with the wishes of the communities affected.
III. Reparatory measures
The CEH considers that truth, justice, reparation and forgiveness are the bases of the process
of consolidation of peace and national reconciliation. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the
50
Guatemalan State to design and promote a policy of reparation for the victims and their relatives.
The primary objectives should be to dignify the victims, to guarantee that the human rights vio-
lations and acts of violence connected with the armed confrontation will not be repeated and to
ensure respect for national and international standards of human rights.
On this basis, the CEH recommends:
National Reparation Programme
7. That the Guatemalan State, by means of appropriate measures taken by the Government and
the Congress of the Republic, urgently create and put into effect a National Reparation
Programme for the victims, and their relatives, of human rights violations and acts of violence con-
nected with the armed confrontation.
8. That, to this end, the Government present to the Congress of the Republic, with the utmost
urgency, a legislative bill on reparation for the victims of the armed confrontation which activates the
National Reparation Programme. The said bill should set out the general principles and the struc-
ture of the programme, the categories of the beneficiaries, the measures, the procedures for the iden-
tification of the beneficiaries, the manner and the financial mechanisms, to be set forth below.
Principles and measures
9. That the National Reparation Programme include a series of measures inspired by the princi-
ples of equality, social participation and respect for cultural identity, among which at least the fol-
lowing should figure:
a) Measures for the restoration of material possessions so that, as far as is possible, the sit-
uation existing before the violation be re-established, particularly in the case of land
ownership.
b) Measures for the indemnification or economic compensation of the most serious injuries
and losses resulting as a direct consequence of the violations of human rights and of
humanitarian law.
c) Measures for psychosocial rehabilitation and reparation, which should include, among
others, medical attention and community mental health care, and likewise the provision
of legal and social services.
d) Measures for the satisfaction and restoration of the dignity of the individual, which
should include acts of moral and symbolic reparation.
1 0. That, depending on the type of violation, the reparatory measures be individual or collective.
Collective reparatory measures should be implemented in such a way as to facilitate reconciliation
between victims and perpetrators, without stigmatising either. Therefore, collective reparatory
measures for survivors of collective human rights violations and acts of violence, and their relatives,
should be carried out within a framework of territorially based projects to promote reconciliation,
so that in addition to addressing reparation, their other actions and benefits also favour the entire
51
population, without distinction between victims and perpetrators.
1 1 . That, for the process of reparation to become one of the principal bases for the process of
national reconstruction and reconciliation, it is vital that Guatemalan society participate actively
in the definition, execution and evaluation of the National Reparation Programme. This partici-
pation is especially important in the case of the Mayan population, which was affected with par-
ticular severity by the violence. In the specific case of measures for collective reparation it is essen-
tial that the beneficiaries themselves participate in defining the priorities of the reparation process.
Beneficiaries
1 2. That the beneficiaries of the moral and material reparatory measures must be the victims (or
their relatives) of the human rights violations and of the acts of violence connected with the inter-
nal armed confrontation.
1 3. That for the purposes of the programme, victims are considered to be those persons who have
personally suffered human rights violations and acts of violence connected with the internal armed
confrontation.
14. That in those cases where individual economic indemnification is appropriate, prioritisation
of the beneficiaries must be established, taking into consideration the severity of the violation,
their economic situation and social vulnerability, and paying particular attention to the elderly,
widows, minors or those who are found to be disadvantaged in any other way.
1 5. That the identification of Programme's beneficiaries should be guided by criteria of clarity,
justice, equality, speed, accessibility and broad-based participation.
Structure of the programme
1 6. That the Board of Directors of the Programme be composed of nine members: i) two persons
appointed by the President of the Republic; ii) two persons appointed by the Congress of the
Republic; iii) one person designated by the Human Rights Ombudsman; iv) a representative from
the victims' organisations; v) a representative from the human rights organisations; vi) a represen-
tative from the Mayan organisations; vii) a representative from the women's organisations.
1 7. That, with the aim of facilitating the appointment process for the representatives of the afore-
mentioned organisations, the person designated by the Human Rights Ombudsman convene and
facilitate appointment processes of the respective sectors.
18. That the Programme's Board of Directors should have the following functions:
a) Receive individual or collective applications from potential beneficiaries.
b) Assess, according to the circumstances of each case, whether the potential beneficiary has the
status of victim or relative of a victim. Victims of cases contained in the case annexes of this
Report should be automatically qualified as victims without the need for another case study.
52
c) Assess the socio-economic status of potential beneficiaries previously identified as victims.
d) On the basis of the former, decide who the beneficiaries are.
e) Decide on the relevant reparatory measures.
Financing
19. That the State fund the National Reparation Programme by putting into effect the univer-
sally progressive tax reform established by the Peace Accords. To achieve this, a redistribution of
social spending and a decrease in military spending would be appropriate. These measures should
constitute the principal source of financing.
20. That, to the same end, the State solicit international co-operation from those countries which,
during the internal armed confrontation, lent military and financial aid to the parties.
Period of operation
21 . The National Reparation Programme should cover the time period necessary for it to achieve
its objectives. This should not be less than ten years, considering the period determined for the
presentation of the applications and the time necessary for allocating and delivering the benefits.
Forced disappearance
Given the extent of the crime of forced disappearance, developed as a repeated practise in
Guatemala during the period of armed confrontation, and considering that forced disappearance
not only causes those close to the detained person long-term distress due to the uncertainty of the
fate of their loved one, but also generates a series of legal and administrative problems, it becomes
vital to rectify these problems so that the suffering and complications occasioned by the disap-
pearance are not prolonged. Therefore, so that it may be included in the National Reparation
Programme, the CEH recommends:
Search for the disappeared
22. That the Government and the judiciary, in collaboration with civil society, initiate, as soon as
possible, investigations regarding all known forced disappearances. All available legal and mater-
ial resources should be utilised to clarify the whereabouts of the disappeared and, in the case of
death, to deliver the remains to the relatives.
23. That the Guatemalan Army and the former Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity pro-
vide whatever information they may have in relation to the disappearances of people that occurred
during the period of internal armed confrontation.
REQUEST In relation to the search for the disappeared, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), an
international body specialising in such matters, is requested to lend its advice and technical support to the various
organs of the Guatemalan State responsible for these activities.
53
Specific recommendations concerning children who have been disappeared,
illegally adopted or illegally separated from their families.
24. That the Government urgently activate the search for children who have been disappeared
including, at the very least, the following measures:
a) Establishment of a National Commission for the Search for Disappeared Children
whose aim should be to look for children who have been disappeared, illegally adopt-
ed or illegally separated from their parents and of documenting their disappearance.
Suggestion and request: That the said Commission be composed of the Human Rights Ombudsman and rep-
resentatives from the national non-governmental organisations for human rights and children, with the advice
and technical and financial support, as available, of UNICEF, the 1CRC and international non-governmental
organisations specialising in children's issues, from whom the CEH solicits co-operation.
b) The promotion of legislative measures by which, at the request of interested parties,
the courts and tribunals of the judiciary and the bodies charged with the protection
of unaccompanied children, allow access to their files, facilitating the acquisition of
information regarding the identity, ethnic origin, age, place of birth, current where-
abouts and real name of the children given up for adoption or taken into care during
the armed confrontation.
c) The implementation of a wide-reaching general information campaign in Spanish and
all the native languages, across every region of the country and. in refugee sites locat-
ed in other countries, concerning the activities and measures connected with the
search for these children.
25. That the media actively assist the initiatives in the search for disappeared children.
26. That the Government promote extraordinary legislative measures that, on the request of the
adopted person or his/her relatives, allow for the review of adoptions brought about without the
knowledge, or against the will, of the natural parents. The said review should always take place
taking into consideration the views of the person who was adopted and in such a way as to pro-
mote cordial relations between the adoptive and natural families so that subsequent trauma for the
adopted person is avoided.
Recognition of the legal status of absence due to forced disappearance
27. That the Government prepare and present a bill of law to the Congress of the Republic, by
which the declaration of absence due to forced disappearance is recognised as a legal category with
the purpose of validating for legal purposes filiation, succession, reparation, and other civil ends
related to it.
54
Active policy of exhumation
The CEH believes that the exhumation of the remains of the victims of the armed con-
frontation and the location of clandestine and hidden cemeteries, wherever they are found to be, is
in itself an act of justice and reparation and is an important step on the path to reconciliation. It
is an act of justice because it constitutes part of the right to know the truth and it contributes to
the knowledge of the whereabouts of the disappeared. It is an act of reparation because it dignifies
the victims and because the right to bury the dead and to carry out ceremonies for them accord-
ing to each culture is inherent in all human beings.
On this basis, and taking into consideration the high number of clandestine cemeteries
referred to in this Report, as well as those still not publicly known, the CEH recommends:
28. That the Government prepare and develop an active policy of exhumation and urgently pre-
sent to the Congress of the Republic legislation for a Law of Exhumation which establishes rapid
and effective procedures for this and which takes into account the three following recommenda-
tions.
29. That the process of exhumation is carried out with full respect for the cultural values and dig-
nity of the victims and their families, considering the process of exhumation not only as a judicial
procedure, but above all as means for individual and collective reparation.
30. That the bodies and remains of the victims be handed over to their relatives for a dignified
burial according to their particular culture.
31. That the work of the non-governmental organisations specialising in forensic anthropology
and the investigation and identification of human remains be promoted and supported. The said
specialist organisations should work in association with the Human Rights Ombudsman, whose
office should serve as the depository for the relevant data.
REQUEST: Given the economic cost entailed by such specialist activity, the financial support and technical advice of
the international community is particularly requested.
IV. Measures to foster a culture of mutual respect
AND OBSERVANCE OF HUMAN RIGHTS
IV. 1. Culture of mutual respect
As reflected in the previous chapters of the Report, a culture of violence has developed in
Guatemala, which has resulted in mistrust and a lack of respect among its people. This clearly
needs to be transformed into a culture of tolerance and mutual respect.
The CEH believes that the Peace Accords are a basic foundation for the development of
peaceful and tolerant relations between the various sectors of Guatemalan society. Consequently,
the knowledge and assimilation of the past, the knowledge of the causes and the scope of the
55
uncontrolled violence and, likewise, of the basic principles of respect for human rights, of the
mechanisms for their defence and the peaceful solution of disputes are essential elements for the
consolidation of a peaceful future.
The CEH believes that to achieve national harmony and reconciliation, a concerted effort at
cultural change is required and that this can only be contemplated through an active policy of edu-
cation for peace.
The relationship between the State and the indigenous population of Guatemala — particu-
larly the Mayan people — has subsisted within an environment of racism, inequality and exclusion.
As this can be considered to be one of the historical causes of the armed confrontation, measures
guaranteeing the protection of the individual and collective rights of the indigenous population,
the respect for cultural plurality and the promotion of intercultural relations become vital.
On this basis, the CEH recommends:
The dissemination and teaching of the contents of the Report
32. That the State, as a moral imperative and as a duty, embrace the contents of this Report and
support all initiatives put into effect for its dissemination and promotion among all Guatemalans.
33. That, to this end, and in co-ordination with the organisations of civil society in Guatemala
and particularly with indigenous and human rights organisations, the Government promote a
campaign for the general dissemination of the Report, that takes into consideration the social, cul-
tural and linguistic reality of Guatemala.
34. That, respecting the multilingual character of Guatemala, the Guatemalan Academy of Mayan
Languages carry out the translation of the Report, with public financing, into the following languages:
• the entire Report should be translated into, and published in, at least five Mayan lan-
guages: k'iche, kaqchikel, mam, q'eqchi' and ixil 1 ; and,
• the Report's conclusions and recommendations should be translated into the twenty-
one Mayan languages and disseminated in both written and oral forms.
35. That the Government provide for and finance the translation of the Report's conclusions and
recommendations into ganfuna and xinca.
36. That the curricula of primary, secondary and university level education include instruction on
the causes, development and consequences of the armed confrontation and likewise of the content
of the Peace Accords with the depth and method relevant to the particular level.
1 These five linguistic communities were affected most gravely during the armed confrontation. The first four are the most widely spoken lan-
guages in relation to the rest of the country's Mayan languages.
56
Education for a culture of mutual respect and peace
37. That the State, along with the national human rights non-governmental organisations, co-
finance an educational campaign to promote a culture of mutual respect and peace, to be devel-
oped by the aforementioned non-governmental organisations and aimed at the country's diverse
political and social sectors. The said campaign should be based on principles such as democracy,
tolerance, respect for human rights and on the use of dialogue as an instrument for the peaceful
solution of disputes. Likewise, it should include the promotion of the development and free cir-
culation of information, with particular emphasis on the content of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights and on the fundamental principle of peace.
38. That the Government, by means of the educational reform envisaged by the Peace Accords, fos-
ter an environment of tolerance and respect and promote self-awareness and awareness of the other,
so that the dividing lines created by the ideological, political and cultural polarisation may be erased.
REQUEST: considering the activities so far developed in rhis area in Guatemala, the CEH requests that the
Organization of American States (OAS), through the Cultural Dialogue Programme: Development of Resources
for the Construction of Peace (OAS/PROPAZ), lend its support and technical advice to the implementation of
the recommendations regarding a culture of mutual respect. Likewise, considering its expertise and activity at
the universal level, the Culture of Peace Programme of the Organisation of the United Nations for Education,
Science and Culture (UNESCO) is requested to afford whatever assistance possible to this process.
IV.2. Observance of human rights
With the aim of strengthening a culture of mutual respect and observance of human rights
and of effectively protecting those working for their defence, the CEH recommends:
Mechanisms for international protection
39. That the executive and legislative branches take all necessary steps to allow the Guatemalan State
to ratify those international human rights instruments still pending, as well as the corresponding
implementation mechanisms. The CEH particularly recommends giving priority to the following:
• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,
with recognition of the competence of the Committee for the Elimination of All Forms
of Racial Discrimination to receive individual complaints.
• First optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
• Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment, with recognition of the competence of the Committee against Torture to
receive individual complaints.
• Additional Protocol of the American Convention on Human Rights for the Question
of Economic, Cultural and Social Rights ("Protocol of San Salvador").
57
• Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearances.
• Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal.
International humanitarian law
40. That the Government take the necessary measures to fully incorporate into national legisla-
tion, the standards of international humanitarian law and that it regularly provide instruction
regarding these norms to the personnel of state institutions, particularly the Army, who are respon-
sible for respecting, and in turn engendering respect in others for said norms.
Human rights defenders
41 . That the Government promote, with prior consultation the organisations for human rights,
legislative measures specifically orientated towards the protection of human rights defenders.
Administrative measures related to public officials responsible
for human rights violations
At the same time as reiterating the importance of the measures and commitments assumed
by the signatories to the Comprehensive Agreement on Human Rights, and as a solely preventa-
tive rather than repressive or punitive measure, the CEH recommends:
42. That a commission should be established by the President of the Republic using his consti-
tutional prerogative, to be under his immediate authority and supervision, and which will exam-
ine the conduct of the officers of the Army and of the various bodies of state security forces active
during the period of the armed confrontation. Its purpose is to assess the adequacy of their con-
duct in the execution of their duties during the said period, in regard to the minimum standards
established by the instruments of international human rights and humanitarian law.
43. That the said Commission be composed of three independent civilians of recognised honesty
and irreproachable democratic trajectory.
44. That the aforementioned Commission should carry out its tasks by the procedure it deems
most appropriate, but in any case should listen to the interested parties, bearing in mind the CEH's
Report and the personal record of the officers.
45. That consequently, and in view of the magnitude and severity of human rights abuses, admin-
istrative measures be adopted that take into account the content of the draft document "Set of
Principles for the Protection and Promotion of Human Rights through Action to Combat
Impunity" 2 of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights.
2 E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/20/Rev.l/AnexoII
58
V. Measures to strengthen the democratic process
V.l. Administration of justice and traditional forms
of conflict resolution
V.l. a Administration of justice
In various sections of the Peace Accords express reference is made to Guatemala's system for
the administration of justice. Specific reference is made to it in the Agreement on the
Strengthening of Civil Power and the Role of the Armed Forces in a Democratic Society, in which
it is described as "one of the greatest structural weaknesses of the Guatemalan State." In fulfilling
the said agreement, the Commission on the Strengthening of the Justice System produced a final
report including various recommendations.
As a result of its own investigations, the CEH has also come to the conclusion that the weak-
ness and dysfunction of the judicial system has contributed decisively to impunity and the misap-
plication of criminal law during the period covered by the CEH's mandate.
Also, as a result of the Peace Accords, the Congress of the Republic approved the National
Reconciliation Law, which, according to Article 1 , is considered to be a "basic instrument for the
reconciliation of those people involved in the internal armed confrontation."
Considering the former, the CEH recommends:
Commitments pertaining to the Peace Accords
46. That the powers of the Guatemalan State regard the fulfilment of their commitments on jus-
tice contained in the Agreement on the Strengthening of Civil Power and the Role of the Armed
Forces in a Democratic Society, as of utmost importance. The recommendations contained in the
final Report produced by the Commission on the Strengthening of the Justice System, and which
the CEH assumes and reiterates as it own, should be carried out in full.
National Reconciliation Law
47. That the powers of the State fulfil, and demand fulfilment of, the Law of National
Reconciliation, in all of its terms and in relation to the rest of Guatemalan law. Those crimes for
whose commission liability is not extinguished by the said law, should be prosecuted, tried and
punished, particularly following Article 8 "crimes of genocide, torture and forced disappearance,
as well as those crimes that are not subject to prescription or that do not allow the extinction of
criminal liability, in accordance with domestic law or international treaties ratified by Guatemala."
48. That, in applying the National Law of Reconciliation, the relevant structures take into
account the various degrees of authority and responsibility for the human rights violations and acts
of violence, paying particular attention to those who instigated and promoted these crimes.
59
Right to habeas data
49. That a bill of law be presented by the Government to the Congress of the Republic which
quickly and effectively establishes the right of habeas data as a specific mechanism of protection
and activates the constitutional right, recognised in Article 31 of the Constitution, of access to
information contained in archives, files or any other form of state or private record. It should also
penalise the gathering, storage or concealment of information about individuals, their religious or
political affiliation, their trade union or social activism and any other data relating to their private
lives.
V.l.b Traditional forms of conflict resolution
The Commission on the Strengthening of the Justice System included a series of recommen-
dations in its final Report that uses as its starting point the fact that it is "necessary to proceed
with the search for formulas that encompass traditional methods of conflict resolution and the state
judicial system, capable of complementing both components."
As outlined in its Report, the CEH has noted that disrespect for the traditional methods
of conflict resolution, and for the authorities charged with applying them, to the point of the per-
petration of acts aimed at eliminating them, has been an almost constant characteristic from 1980
until the end of the armed confrontation.
Considering all the former, and reiterating the need to fulfil the recommendations made by
the Commission on the Strengthening of the Justice System, the CEH especially recommends:
Legal integration
50. That what is known as customary law is recognised and integrated into the Guatemalan legal
framework, formalising and ordering a respectful and harmonious relationship between the jud-
icial system and the traditional forms of conflict resolution, with their principles, criteria, autho-
rities and procedures, as long as the rights recognised in the Guatemalan Constitution and in inter-
national treaties on human rights are not violated.
Instruction
51 . That the universities and other state educational bodies which teach the law include knowl-
edge of the norms of the traditional forms of conflict resolution as a distinct subject in their study
programme.
52. That the Ministry of Education support the publication of materials which contain the latest
advances in the research into the practices that constitute what is known as customary law.
60
V.2. Primacy of civilian power and the role of the Armed Forces
V.2.a Legal reform
Considering the grave human rights violations committed by Army agents during the armed
confrontation and the marked weakening of the social fabric as a direct consequence of the milita-
mation, the CEH believes it vital to promote legislative measures which establish the fundamen-
tal bases for the correct relationship between the Army and civil society within a democratic sys-
tem, and the necessary subordination of the Army to civilian rule. These measures should include
the adaptation of the military norms and fulfilment of its constitutional mandate to promote
respect for human rights, the exercise of discipline only according to the law, the apolitical role of
the military and restricting its role to external defence.
The CEH also recognises the pernicious effect of the activities of military intelligence on
the human rights situation and on civilian-military relations. Equally, it recognises the severe
abuse of authority committed in the past through anti-democratic behaviour and the serious vio-
lation of human rights by forces directly linked to such intelligence services and often carried out
by means of covert actions.
The CEH believes that unquestioning obedience to any kind of order is one of the most sig-
nificant and most dangerous factors generating human rights violations.
On the basis of the former, the CEH recommends:
53. That the Government present to the Congress of the Republic the necessary legislative reform
bills that include measures to implement the Recommendations number 54 to 59 below. These
bills should be based on, and complement, what was established in the Agreement on the
Strengthening of Civilian Power and the Role of the Armed Forces in a Democratic Society.
Reform of the Constitutive Law of the Army
54. That the Presidential and Vice-presidential General Staff (Estado Mayor Presidential y
Vicepresidencial) structures be abolished, being unnecessary in a democratic State.
Reform of military legislation
55. That a new Military Code be drafted and put into effect based on legal, moral and doctrinal
criteria in accordance with the Constitution of the Republic and the reforms to the same derived
from the Peace Accords.
56. That the Military Code include the correct concept, already contained in the Constitution of
the Republic, of discipline and obedience solely within the law and never outside it, and that ref-
erence be removed in the Military Code to obedience being owed to whatever kind of order.
57. That the death penalty for the military offence of disobedience be abolished.
61
New legislation regarding the state intelligence apparatus
58. That the Government present to Congress of the Republic the corresponding legislation that:
a) Precisely define the structures, tasks and limits of civil and military intelligence,
restricting the latter to exclusively military affairs; and
b) Establish clear mechanisms of effective control in Congress regarding all aspects of the
apparatus of state intelligence.
59. That the commitments regarding intelligence contained in the Agreement on the
Strengthening of Civilian Power and the Role of the Armed Forces in a Democratic Society be ful-
filled as soon as possible, particularly those relating to the approval of the following: the Law on
Methods of Supervision of the Organs of State Intelligence; the Law Regulating Access to
Information on Military or Diplomatic Affairs relating to National Security; the delimitation of
the jurisdiction of the Intelligence Office of the Army General Staff, reconciling these to the new
role of the Army; the configuration of the Department of Civil Intelligence and Information
Analysis and of the Secretary for Strategic Analysis.
V.l.b New military doctrine
60. That the Government promote a new military doctrine for the Guatemalan Army, that should
result from a process of internal reflection and consultation with the organisations of civil society.
This doctrine should establish the basic principles for the appropriate relationship between the
Army and society within a democratic and pluralist framework. Among these fundamental prin-
ciples, at least the following should figure:
a) The function of the Army is the defence of the sovereignty and independence of the
State and the integrity of its territory. Its organisation is hierarchical and based on the
principles of discipline and obedience within the law.
b) The Army should accept that sovereignty resides in the Guatemalan people. As a con-
sequence, the Army should respect whatever social reforms and changes which result
from the exercise of this sovereignty, reconciling itself to the mechanisms established
in the Constitution.
c) The Army will base its legal standards, as well as its conduct, on systematic respect
for human rights.
d) The Army will be subordinate to political power, which emanates from the ballot box
through the procedures established by the Constitution.
e) The Army will show respect for the Constitution in all its aspects.
f) The Army is apolitical. It should remain at the margins of party politics and respect
all those political forces legally constituted. None of these may be persecuted or sub-
mitted to surveillance or control of any of their activities that are carried out within
the law.
62
g) Members of the military accept the limitation inherent in their career, specifically intend-
ed to preserve the apolitical nature of the institution, that, whilst they are in military ser-
vice, they may not affiliate to, nor become a member of, any party or trade union.
h) Members of the military may exercise their right to vote freely and secretly in nation-
al and local elections. Nevertheless, whilst they remain in active service they may not
reveal their political preferences in any public act or through any medium of social
communication.
61. That the basic values of members of the military must conform to the following concepts and
fundamental principles:
a) that members of the military are citizens in the public service of national defence;
b) that military discipline has to be based on the concept of strict obedience within the
law, and never outside it;
c) that the concept of military honour must be inseparable from respect for human rights;
and,
d) that the esprit de corps must conform to a high standard of ethics and be based on
principles of justice and public service.
V.2.c Reform of military education
62. That the Government take measures for the revision of the curricula of the Guatemalan Army's
various training centres, in such a way as to include, as basic subject material, the points numbered
previously.
63. That the CEH's Report be studied as part of the Guatemalan Army's educational curriculum.
64. That the Guatemalan Army's various educational centres promote a review of the teaching
staff and remove military personnel involved in present or past human rights violations from edu-
cational functions. Maximum professional and ethical rigor from the teaching staff is required.
65. That the civilian Faculty of the Guatemalan Army's training centres be made up of persons of
recognised democratic trajectory.
V.2.d Other recommendations pertaining to the Army
Civil service: military and social
Considering that forced and discriminatory recruitment has been a continuous and abusive
practice throughout the armed confrontation, having affected almost every Mayan community, and
considering the future approval of the Civil Service Law contemplated in the Agreement on the
63
Strengthening of Civilian Power and the Role of the Armed Forces in a Democratic Society, which
will regulate military and social service, the CEH particularly recommends with regard to this law:
66. That the regulations of military service maintain strict respect for the principle of equality
before the law in the mechanisms and process of recruitment.
67. That the option of conscientious objection be established and registered for those whose reli-
gious, ethical or philosophical convictions do not permit them to carry arms, so that they are not
obliged to do so, but instead allowed to perform other types of civic service to the community.
68. That young men of military service age who themselves, or whose family members within first
degree consanguinity, were victims of human rights violations and acts of violence connected with the
armed confrontation, remain exempt from military service and be directly assigned to civil service.
Special forces
69. That, in conformity with the principles of military doctrine and education stated previously,
the training programmes of the armed forces be subject to drastic and profound revision, especial-
ly those conceived specifically for counter-insurgency, such as that known as the Kaibil School.
Respect for Mayan cultural names and symbols
70. That, with the aim of respecting the Mayan people's cultural identity, which was severely vio-
lated during the armed confrontation, the Army no longer the use of names of particular Mayan
significance and symbolism for its military structures and units.
Civic defence of the peace
In a world in which national and international peace is the responsibility of all and in which
the fundamental duty of the armed forces should be the defence of peace, the CEH recommends:
71 . That, as one of its priorities, the Army promote participation in peace initiatives and inter-
national security under the authority of the United Nations Organisation or the Organization of
American States.
72. That the military professionals make every effort to achieve a Guatemalan Army dedicat-
ed to the service of peace and to the citizens of Guatemala, of which every Guatemalan may
feel proud.
Request: The governments of those countries whose armies have undergone similar transitions to that required of
the Guatemalan Army, are asked to lend their technical and financial co-operation to facilitate the implementation
of the recommendations listed above in part V.2.
64
V.3- Public security
The principal aim of the restructuring of the security forces, their professionalisation and their
instruction regarding the law, democracy, human rights and a culture of peace, as stipulated in the
Agreement on the Strengthening of Civilian. Power and the Role of the Armed Forces in a
Democratic Society, is to convert the role of the police into one of genuine public service. This
implies the exclusively civilian character of the police force and respect for the multiethnic nature
of the Guatemalan nation in the recruitment, selection, training and deployment of the police.
Given the discrediting of former police institutions for grave human rights violations and the
general deficiency of service to public security afforded to the community, the new National Civilian
Police (PNC) must implement, in their doctrine, professional conduct and in the development of a
professional and modern police force, the minimum principles contained in the relevant internation-
al instruments regarding respect for human rights, public liberties, rule of law and democracy.
On this basis and with a view to guaranteeing suitable future development of the duties of
the police, the CEH particularly recommends:
Security forces doctrine
73. That under the guidance of the Ministry of the Interior, the PNC begin a process of internal
reflection in consultation with organisations from civil society, with the aim of producing and
defining the doctrine of the civilian security forces, whose bases should be:
a) service to the community, without discrimination of any type and with respect for the
multiethnic character of the Guatemalan nation;
b) development of the civilian nature of the police force and the demilitarization of its
organisation, hierarchy and disciplinary procedures;
c) complete respect for human rights and the consequent investigation, prosecution and
conviction of any members who have committed human rights violations;
d) respect for democracy and the rule of law; and
e) the continuous professional training and instruction of the police at every rank.
Internal control
74. That under the supervision of the Ministry of the Interior, the Directorate of the PNC take
the relevant measures to ensure the removal from the police of those elements who have acted, or
act, against its doctrine of public service and create a new unit for internal control or inspection,
which is accessible both to the public and the Human Rights Ombudsman, and which has auton-
omy to investigate and sanction both individual and institutional professional misconduct.
65
Indigenous participation
75. That the directorate of the PNC promote measures which genuinely open the way for par-
ticipation by indigenous peoples in public security service, such as:
a) taking into consideration bilingualism in the academic evaluation, as well as eventu-
al deployment of a police candidate;
b) the elimination of discrimination in the summoning and selection processes and their
adaptation to the realities of a multiethnic country;
c) the education in the PNC Academy on the multicultural nature of Guatemala and
intercultural harmony; and
d) the organisation of the police service in such a way that indigenous members are able
to use their native language skills in contact with the public, promote positive rela-
tions with indigenous institutions and authorities and respect forms of conflict reso-
lution characteristic of their cultures.
Resources
76. That, when determining the national budget, the Government and the Congress of the
Republic increase the financing of the National Civilian Police, guaranteeing adequate training
and equipment with modern means and installations and dignified working conditions.
Civilian nature of the PNC
77. That the new Public Order Law, referred to by the Agreement on the Strengthening of
Civilian Power and the Role of the Armed Forces in a Democratic Society, considers the civilian
nature of the Police during emergency situations of whatever type, and does not oblige it to par-
ticipate in duties which appertain to the Army.
78. That, in case the reforms proposed in the Peace Accords are unsuccessful, Congress take the
necessary legislative action to separate the functions of the Army and of the Police, limiting the
participation of the Army in the field of public security to an absolute minimum.
VI. Other recommendations to promote peace
AND NATIONAL HARMONY
The CEH believes that for the promotion of peace and national harmony it is necessary to
know and face the causes of the armed confrontation and its consequences, in such a way as to put
an end to the social, ethnic and cultural divisions in Guatemala.
Equally necessary, are social participation and the contribution of all Guatemalans without
discrimination in the fulfilment of public duties.
66
Although the CEH s Report should serve as a fundamental reference point in the investiga-
tion of Guatemala's past, it does not in itself bring to a close the investigation and analysis that
must be carried out regarding the armed confrontation, its causes, the extent of the violence and
its effects. The Report of the CEH should serve as a platform for continuing investigation within
Guatemala. On this basis, the CEH recommends:
Investigation and analysis of the past
79. That the Guatemalan people continue the investigation and analysis of the events of the past,
so as to construct firm foundations for the future based on their knowledge of the past, and there-
by avert a repetition of the mistakes that provoked the confrontation.
Political participation of indigenous peoples
The CEH, without prejudice to the commitments already established in the Agreement on
Identity and Rights of Indigenous Peoples, would like to reiterate the importance of the obliga-
tions assumed by the Government to promote social and political participation by the indigenous
population and to bring about regional administration coherent with ethnic identity. For this rea-
son the CEH particularly recommends:
80. That among the public officials and other personnel employed by the State, room is given, in
sufficient number, to indigenous professionals with the qualifications and experience relevant to
the demands of the various posts.
81 . That, to the end expressed in the previous paragraph, the State establish and finance a system
of grants for the training and specialisation of the aforementioned indigenous professionals.
Elimination of racism and of the subordination of indigenous peoples
Given that the relationship between the State and the indigenous population of Guatemala
— particularly the Mayan people — has subsisted within an environment of racism, inequality and
exclusion, and that this is one of the historical causes of the armed confrontation, measures guar-
anteeing the protection of the individual and collective rights of the indigenous population,
respect for cultural plurality and promotion of intercultural relations, become vital.
On this basis, the CEH reiterates:
82. That the Agreement on Identity and Rights of Indigenous Peoples be implemented, in its
entirety.
Fiscal Reform
Considering the Agreement on Social and Economic Aspects and the Agrarian Situation and
the need for all Guatemalans to contribute to social development and the improvement of public
services, the CEH reiterates:
67
83. That the Government promote measures designed to encourage the mobilisation of national
resources, carrying out urgent fiscal reform that is just, equitable and progressive, as established
in the Agreement on Social and Economic Aspects and the Agrarian Situation.
VII. Body responsible for promoting and monitoring
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS
The CEH believes it vital that these recommendations be fulfilled so that the mandate
entrusted to the CEH within the framework of the peace process achieves its objectives. To accom-
plish this, the joint participation of the State and civil society is needed, as every Guatemalan with-
out distinction should benefit from the recommendations.
Therefore, the CEH recommends the establishment of a follow-up body in which both State
and civil society are represented, to aid, promote and monitor the implementation of the recom-
mendations. Consolidation of the peace and reconciliation process in Guatemala requires that the
State and civil society work together to achieve their common objectives.
Although the monitoring and implementation of the recommendations regarding the con-
solidation of peace and reconciliation falls to Guatemala, continuing support from the interna-
tional community will be necessary.
On this basis, the CEH considers it necessary and, therefore, recommends:
84. That the Congress of the Republic, through the initiative of its Commission on Human
Rights, approve, no more than 60 days from the publication of the CEH's Report and through the
corresponding legislative measure, the establishment of a body responsible for implementing and
monitoring the recommendations of the CEH under the name of "Foundation for Peace and
Harmony" (hereinafter, "the Foundation"), whose mandate; composition, appointment procedure,
constitution, installation, period of operation, human and material resources and financing are out-
lined below.
Mandate
The Foundation's principal objective will be to facilitate the implementation of the rec-
ommendations made by the CEH, regarding the five principal areas of activity covered by the
mandate:
a) Direct implementation of specific recommendations;
b) Backing and assistance in the implementation of the recommendations;
c) Monitoring the adequate implementation of the recommendations;
d) Promotion of and support for historical research;
e) Assistance in seeking funds to finance projects for the implementation of the recom-
mendations.
68
Composition
The Foundation shall be composed of seven members who will be appointed for a period to
be determined by the corresponding legal resolution. Their distribution shall be as follows:
• Two persons appointed by the Congress of the Republic, who shall be of different polit-
ical affiliations.
• One person appointed by the Government.
• An independent person, of recognised democratic trajectory and commitment to the
peace process.
• Two representatives from Guatemalan non-governmental organisations for human
rights and victims.
• One representative from the Guatemalan Mayan organisations.
The appointment by the relevant institutions shall be made no later than two months from
the date of the congressional resolution.
Appointment procedure
The Congress of the Republic and the Government respectively shall appoint the relevant
persons. It is suggesced that the person appointed by the Government should be the Secretary of the Peace.
The independent person of recognised democratic trajectory and commitment to the peace
process shall be appointed by the Secretary-General of the United Nations, by the procedure he
deems most appropriate.
The representatives of the non-governmental organisations for human rights and the Mayan
organisations shall be chosen by the organisations of each sector through an election process, to be
convened and facilitated by the independent person appointed by the Secretary-General of the
United Nations.
Constitution
The Foundation shall hold its constitutive meeting as soon as the members have been
appointed.
Installation
The Foundation shall be fully installed and operational, at the latest, five months after hav-
ing been initially integrated and constituted.
69
Period of operation
The Foundation shall have an initial operational period of three years from the date of its
installation, which can be extended by Congress in view of advances made in the implementation
of the recommendations.
Human resources:
The personnel shall be essentially Guatemalan, looking for qualified persons who have expe-
rience in the field of the investigation and defence of human rights.
Material resources:
The CEH has left instructions with UNOPS enabling the latter, in consultation with the
donors to the CEH and on viewing the Foundation's draft budget and plan of operation, to deter-
mine the material resources and the computing and communications assets of the CEH to be trans-
ferred by UNOPS to the Foundation, by the way of a CEH donation.
National and international support
It is suggested that the Foundation seek both the national and international support neces-
sary to achieve the aforementioned objectives.
VIII. Request to the United Nations
The CEH requests that the Secretary-General of the United Nations lend his support,
through the United Nations Verification Mission in Guatemala (MINUGUA) and within the
framework of the Mission's mandate, so that the recommendations laid out previously may be
implemented and may achieve their objectives.
The CEH also requests that the Secretary-General appoint the Foundation's independent
member and that, through the UN body deemed to be most appropriate, he establish an interna-
tional mechanism to provide the Foundation with technical support and to channel donations from
the international community.
Annexes
CHRONOLOC
' Government
1958-63
General Miguel Ydi'goras
Fuentes
Elected
1956 Constitution in force
3Y OF EVENTS DURII
Populist and anti-communist
discourse.
Limited opening for new social
organisations.
Integration of the country to the
Central American Common
Market.
Collaboration with the USA to
invade Cuba.
Government overwhelmed by
accusations of corruption.
1962: military cabinet estab-
lished.
SIG THE ARMED CONF
ssCourrterinsurgencyiStrategy
^^-^"ffl^Practfce"-' 4'
Arrests, kidnappings, execu-
tions, military tribunals.
: RONTATION IN GUATEft
. Social Movement
1962: Days of protest in March and
April, social mobilisation against the
Government, led by the student
movement, provokes a political crisis
for the Government of Ydi'goras.
Ebb in the movement after the repres-
sion of the protests. Some activists
join the insurgent movement.
Influx of foreign clergy possessing a
missionary, anti-communist, reformist
vision. Many of them, impacted by the
poverty in the communities and sub-
sequently influenced by the Second
Vatican Council, took on the chuch's
new social doctrine, working with a
preferential option for the poor.
1ALA 1962-1996
Insurgency 1
1962: Insurgent group MR-13 ini-
tiates military activity, persecution
obliges them to retreat to
Guatemala city to re-organise.
December 1962: three small gue-
rrilla groups unite with the PGT to
establish the first FAR: Marco
Antonio Yon Sosa is named com-
mander-in-chief. Three focal
points: Mico Mountains, Izabal;
Granadilla, Zacapa; Sierra de las
Minas, Zacapa (Guerrilla Front
Edgar Ibarra, FGEI), LuisTurcios
Lima, commander.
1963-66
Colonel Enrique Peralta
Azurdia
Coup d'etat and Constitution
abolished
Fundamental Government
Charter
National Security Doctrine.
The militarization of the State
developed as an institutional
project of the Army.
Infrastructure projects and
industrialisation within the
framework of the Central
American Common Market.
1965: Constituent Assembly
promulgates the new Consti-
tution.
1966: Elections.
1963-67: Army develops intelli-
gence apparatus and mecha-
nisms of social control for the
rural area:
"1. Military commissioners, net-
work of control and information on
insurgent groups.
2. Number of army troops dou-
bles.
3. Operating area of the Am-
bulatory Military Police is extend-
ed to include all rural areas.
4. Militarization of the Police.
5. Establishment of Army Civic
Action programmes.
1965: First massacre of civilians
in the eastern region of Gua-
temala.
1966: Case of the "28", massive
forced disappearance of mem-
bers of PGT and MR-13.
Catholic Action, organisation and pub-
lic education in rural areas.
Development of peasant leagues and
co-operatives, growth of peasant
organisations with salary and land
demands.
Since 1965, Maryknollers, Jesuits and
other religious orders promote social
awareness work with young people
from the capital; creation of youth
group, Criter.
1964: Split of the first FAR.
1965: Second FAR is established
with FGEI and PGT, distanced
from MR-13.
1966: A conciliatory, unilateral,
pre-election cease-fire; support
for Julio Cesar Mendez Montene-
gro's election campaign.
1966: The FAR kidnap three high
State officials to pressure for the
release of the "28".
1 Insurgent organisations are: FAR (Rebel Armed Forces)
MR-13 (Revolutionary Movement November 13) EGP (Guerrilla Army of the Poor)
PGT (Guatemala Workers Party) ORPA (Organisation of People in Arms)
CHRONOLOG
1966-70
Julio Cesar Mendez
Montenegro
Elected
1965 Constitution in force
!Y OF EVENTS DURIN
Pact with the Army which con-
ditions the executive branch
with regards to the National
Security Doctrine.
Discourse of "Third revolution-
ary government".
Extension of agricultural fron-
tiers in northern Guatemala.
Failed attempt at tax reform.
IG THE ARMED CONF
Proliferation of death squads
supported by right-wing sectors.
1966-68: Massacres aimed at
disarticulating the peasant
bases of the guerrillas in the
eastern region; systematic poli-
cy of terror, with the participa-
tion of military commissioners,
death squads and militarised
police, rise in repression against
leaders of FAR, MR13 and
PGT.
The first major insurgent move-
ment suffers military defeat.
RONTATION IN GUATEM
- /Social Movement
First settlement projects in Ixcan
and Peten supported by the
Catholic Church.
1968: Creation of the National
Workers Central (CNT), initially with
a Christian Democrat orientation,
that later would bring together the
majority of the country's trade
unions.
ALA 1962-1996
Insurgency
1966: Death of Turcios Lima in an
accident that has yet to be clari-
fied.
1966-68: Organisations disarticu-
lated after repression in the east-
ern regions of the country and
Guatemala City.
Facing repression in the country-
side, the FAR retreats to Gua-
temala City where they begin a
selective campaign of kidnap-
pings and murders.
1968: Break between FAR and
PGT.
1 9uo. ixiunapping anu muruer or
the US ambassador, John Gor-
don Mein, by the FAR after their
commander, Camilo Sanchez, is
arrested.
1970: Kidnapping and murder of
the German ambassador, Karl
von Spreti, by the FAR.
1970-74
General Carlos Manuel
Arana Osorio
Elected
1965 Constitution in force
Counterinsurgency vision pre-
vails.
Support for the National
Development Plan, with a
State model that promotes
public works and directs the
economy.
Promotion of industry and min-
ing, especially nickel and
petroleum.
A one-year state of siege, house
by house searches in Gua-
temala City.
Large scale selective terror,
murders and disappearances of
political leaders, trade union
and student activists; massive
forced disappearance of the
Political Bureau of the PGT
(1972).
1971: Assassination of Adolfo
Mijangos L6pez, opposition Con-
gressman.
1973: Teachers' strike lasting sever-
al months.
1973-78: Growth and expansion of
trade union activities.
Leadership crisis within the insur-
gency, some leaders leave for
Mexico, others receive training in
Cuba.
1970: Yon Sosa assassinated in
Mexico.
CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS DURING THE ARMED
1974-78
General Kjell Eugenio
Laugerud
Elected
1965 Constitution in force
General continuity of the
model.
Opening of broader political
spaces permits growing
social organisation.
.Greater impetus to agricul-
tural land settlement projects
in the north of Guatemala,
especially in the Northern
Transversal Strip.
1976: Limited capacity to
respond to the disaster pro-
voked by the earthquake
reveals weaknesses of the
political model.
Civic Action of the Army.
1974: Assassination of Huberto
Alvarado, Secretary General of
PGT.
1976-78: Selective repression
in the Ixil area and in Ixcan, as
well as in Guatemala City and
the south coast.
1977: Assassination of Mario
L6pez Larrave, university pro-
fessor and labour lawyer.
1978: Assassination of Father
Herm6genes L6pez.
1978: Massacre in Panz6s, Alta
Verapaz of q'eqchi' peasants
who were making claims to land
rights.
FRONTATION IN GUATEMALA 1962-1996
Indigenous movement takes shape.
The first National Seminars are held,
the National Indigenous Co-ordinator
is created and the Ixim newsletter
begins circulation.
The rural co-operative movement
grows, especially in Ixcan, Peten, Hue-
huetenango, the Central Highlands.
1976: After the earthquake, recon-
struction groups are allowed to form,
giving rise to considerable organisa-
tional growth in rural and urban areas.
1976: Creation of the National
Committee of Trade Union Unity
(CNUS), which in the coming years
would include a wide range of organ-
isations from the social movement.
EGP establishes its base in
Ixcan, the Ixil area, the South
Coast Area and Guatemala City;
its first military actions take place
in 1975, with the killing of a mili-
tary commissioner and Luis
Arenas, an important large
landowner in the Reina Zone.
ORPA establishes its base in the
Sierra Madre Mountain Range,
Coastal Plain and Guatemala
City.
FAR focuses its activities on
Guatemala City and the estab-
lishment of a guerilla column in
Peten.
1976-80: Intensification of social
mobilisation, promoted by trade
unions, peasant groups, secondary
school and university students, slum
dwellers, teachers and grassroots
Christian communities, in the face of
the growing repression and the lack
of response to their demands.
1977: Miners from Ixtahuacan,
Huehuetenango march to Gua-
temala City with labour demands;
they join with trade unionists from the
Pantale6n sugar mill and are met by
150,000 people in their support upon
arriving in the capital.
1977: Funeral of L6pez Larrave is
one of the first that turns into a
protest demostration.
1 978: The Peasant Unity Committee,
CUC, is created, the largest peasant
organisation of the country after the
1954 counterrevolution.
CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS DURING THE ARMED CONFRONTATION IN GUATEMALA 1962-1996
Insurgency
1978-82
General Romeo Lucas
Garcia
Elected
1965 Constitution in force
Continuation of the model.
Populist discourse as well as
discourse on the violence
caused by the "two extremes,"
with the government making
an effort to control them both.
Public investment in large in-
frastructure projects, em-
broiled in corruption scandals.
1978-80: Intense selective
repression leads to loss of lead-
ers for social movement and
opposition political parties,
selective assassinations of
community leaders in rural
areas.
1978: Assassination of Oliverio
Castaneda de Le6n, secretary
general of the University
Students Association (AEU).
1979: Assassinations of Alberto
Fuentes Mohr and Manuel
Colom Argueta, opposition
politicians and social democrat
leaders.
Repression intensifies against
priests, pastoral workers and
catechists of the Catholic
Church.
1980: Massacre at the Spanish
embassy.
1980: Massive forced disa-
ppearance of trade union lead-
ers at the headquarters of CNT
and then Emaus retreat centre.
1978: Urban transport strike, mas-
sive protests for several weeks.
Creation of the Democratic Front
against Repression.
1980: Strike of 70,000 agricultural
workers on the plantations of the
South coast area, led by CUC.
1980: CNUS calls for the overthrow
of the Government.
1980: The diocese of Quiche is
closed, due to the severe repres-
sion against it.
1981-82: Social movement is dis-
articulated by the repression.
1979: ORPA's first military action.
1979: PGT, FAR, EGP come
together as a tripartite alliance
and agree to activate all their
forces.
1980:Guerrilla operations intensi-
fy in Guatemala City and in the
rural areas; including executions
and armed propaganda.
Assassination of Enrique Brol,
important land owner in the Ixil
region.
Assassination of Alberto Habie,
president of CACIF.
1981: Maximum guerrilla activity
in extensive areas of the country,
including the occupation of muni-
cipal capitals, sabotage, road
blockades, executions.
Urban commando activity inten-
sifies in Guatemala City, with
attacks on police stations and
extensive sabotage.
1982: URNG is created.
-J
1981-82: Extensive counter-
insurgency offensive begins:
military operations aimed at dis-
mantling insurgent structures in
the capital and massive repres-
sion against civilians to destroy
the social base of the guerrillas
in rural areas.
1981: Organisation of the PAC
begins.
CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS DURING THE ARMED CONFRONTATION IN GUATEMALA 1962-1996
1982-83
Military triumvirate,
subsequently, general Efrafn
Rfos Montt becomes Head of
State
Coup d'etat and Constitution
abolished
Fundamental Government
Statute
Total militarization of public
administration.
Corporate model imposed with
Council of State.
Moralising discourse.
Support of evangelical church-
es.
Failed attempt at global tax
reform, VAT implemented.
Preparation and implementation
of the National Security and
Development Plan.
1982: Military plan Victory 82,
massacres and scorched earth
operations in communities in
areas of confrontation; cover-
age of the PAC is extended.
Courts of Special Jurisdiction.
Growth and expansion of evangeli-
cal sects.
Massacres lead to large-scale dis-
placements of people seeking re-
fuge in Mexico, in the mountain
areas of Guatemala, in Guatemala
City and the south coast.
Insurgency
After the Army's 1982 offensive,
the URNG retreats and concen-
trates on the areas where they
originally established themselves.
Adoption of a more defensive
strategy aimed at wearing down
the army.
1983-85
General Oscar Humberto
Mejfa Victores
Coup d'etat
Fundamental Government
Statute continues
Militarised resettlement of dis-
placed population.
Implementation of a military
project for political transition.
1984: National Constituent
Assembly.
1985: New Constitution
approved which includes the
creation of the Human Rights
Ombudsman and the Consti-
tutional Court.
1S85: Elections are held to
return to constitutional rule.
Military plan Firmness 83 seeks
to achieve control of civilians
population and strengthen the
PAC.
Model villages and develop-
ment poles are organised to re-
locate and control displaced
members of the population.
Subsequent campaign plans:
Institutional Re-encounter 84
and National Stability 85, with
strong political emphasis on
directing the transition process.
Selective repression of leaders
of trade unions, student and
human rights groups.
Internally displaced groups organise
themselves as Communities of
Population in Resistance (CPR) in
Ixcan, the Ixil area and Peten.
Partial political opening permits
some social organisation, the
Mutual Support Group is estab-
lished, new trade union organisa-
tions are created.
Re-grouping of forces, little mili-
tary activity.
Efforts to recover grassroots sup-
port in different areas.
^4
CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS DURING THE ARMED CONFRONTATION IN GUATEMALA 1962-1996
1986-90
Vinicio Cerezo Arevalo
Elected
1985 Constitution in force
Promotion of a negotiated
solution to the confrontation.
1987: First Government-
URNG conversation, in Spain.
Political opening.
1987-1989: Repeated coup
attempts erode government's
power.
Creation of the National Re-
conciliation Commission,
presided over by Monsignor
Rodolfo Quezada Toruno.
Failed attempt at tax reform.
Concertation policy for national
problem solving.
National Stability Project, pro-
moted by a sector of the Army,
seeks new insertion of the Army
into society.
Military operations focus on and
the ORPA and EGP guerrilla
fronts the CPR.
Selective repression of political
and social activists.
Efforts to maintain the central
role of the Army in defining state
policies.
Process of Government - URNG
rapprochement seen with reser-
vation.
Attempt to achieve URNG sur-
render through negotiation.
Santiago AtKlan massacre; pop-
ulation demands that the Army
withdraw its presence.
Social mobilisation focuses on land,
the rights of the Mayan people, the
return of refugees, the fight against
impunity and for human rights.
1989: 13 week teachers' strike sup-
ported by other state trade unions.
About 70,000 workers walk out.
1990-1991: URNG meetings with dif-
ferent sectors of civil society to pro-
mote the peace process.
1 990: The CPR become public.
1987-91: URNG increases its
offensive capacity and deploys
forces in new areas.
1987-92: Participation in peace
conversations and dialogue,
essentially as a tactic to wear
down the regime.
Since 1989 attacks are aimed at
the agro-exporting sector.
1991-93
Jorge Serrano Elias
Elected
1985 Constitution in force
Dialogue with URNG contin-
ues.
Corruption crisis in the Con-
gress.
1993: Serrano's auto-coup
d'6tat provokes a constitution-
al crisis.
Basic continuation of previous
period.
1992: New impetus to the Mayan mo-
vement, after Rigoberta Menchu Turn
is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
1992: The 8 October Accords are
signed between the Government and
refugee representatives, defining the
conditions for their collective return
from Mexico.
1993: With Serrano's auto-coup, the
National Commission for Consensus
is created to demand respect for the
constitutional order; this brings
together political parties, CACIF,
trade unions, Mayan organisations
and other sectors of the civil society.
Basic continuation of the previous
period.
CHRONOLOC
1993-95
Ramiro de Le6n Carpio
Appointed by the Congress
1985 Constitution in force
3Y OF EVENTS DURII
^^^^^^^^^^^^^
1994: Global Accord on
Human Rights is signed. MIN-
UGUA is established
Return to peace negotiations
with the United Nations as
moderator.
1994: Accord signed for the
establishment of the
Commission for Historical
Clarification.
1995: Accord signed on the
Identity and Rights of
Indigenous Peoples.
YG THE ARMED CONF
Pressure on returnees and dis-
placed persons continues.
1995: Massacre of Xaman, a
community of returnees.
RONTATION IN GUATEM
e^^^^SbclarMovement
1993: First collective return of
refugees from Mexico, 20 January.
1994: Assembly of the Civil Society
formed with 13 sectors of civil soci-
ety represented, to contribute pro-
posals to the parties in the peace
negotiations; CACIF decides not to
participate.
IALA 1962-1996
1993: Recognition of negotiation
as the only way out of the con-
frontation.
1996-
AivaroArzii Irigoyen
Elected
1985 Constitution 1985 in
force
Strong impetus given to nego-
tiation process.
29 December 1996: Accord for
Firm and Lasting Peace is
signed.
October 1996: Crisis in the nego-
tiation provoked by the kidnap-
ping of Olga Novella by an ORPA
unit.
PRESIDENTIAL PERIODS 1900 TO 1996
Sbf Government-'
Howltentfed?;:
1898 to 1920
22 years
Manuel Estrada Cabrera
Dictatorship
The Assembly declared him unfit
to govern
8 April 1920 to
5 December 1921
1 year 8 months
Carlos Herrera
Provisional government, appointed
by the Assembly
Coup d'etat
1921 to
26 September 1926
6 years
General Jose Marfa Orellana
De facto,
subsequently elected
Death
26 December 1926 to
10 December 1930
4 years
General Lazaro Chac6n
Appointed first,
then elected
Death
10 to 15 December 1930
6 days
Baudilio Palma
Appointed
Putsch
15 December 1930
2 January 1 931
1 9 days
General Manuel Orellana
Putsch
2 January 1931 to
14 February 1 931
6 weeks
Jose Marfa Reyna Andrade
Appointed by the Assembly
Elections
14 February 1931
1 July 1944
13 years
General Jorge Ubico Castaneda
Elected and then became
Dictatorship
Resigned
1 to 4 July 1944
4 days
Generals Federico Ponce Vaides,
Buenaventura Pineda and Eduardo
vuidgrdn nnzc
Triumvirate imposed by Jorge Ubico
Decision of Assembly
4 July to
20 October 1944
4 months
General Federico Ponce Vaidez
Appointed by the Assembly.
Temporary president, sought
election.
Overthrown by the October
Revolution
20 October 1944
to 15 March 1945
5 months
Major Francisco Javier Arana, Captain
Jacobo Arbenz Guzman and Jorge
Toriello Garrido (civilian)
Revolutionary Government Junta
After holding elections, power is
handed over to the president
elect
15 March 1945
to 14 March 1951
6 years
Juan Jose Arevalo
Elected
Elections, end of presidential
term
15 March 1951
to 27 June 1954
3 years
.Colonel Jacobo Arbenz Guzman
Elected
Resigned
PRESIDENTIAL PERIODS 1900 TO 1996
Sfe-^j Type of Government
How it ended Sg,^
28 to 29 June 1954
2 days
Colonels Carlos Enrique Diaz, Elfego
1 1. IVIUII^UII Cll IU UUOe HI IUCI OCHIOIIC^i
First Military Junta named
by Arbenz
A new Junta was formed
29 June to 3 July de 1954
5 days
Colonels Elfego H. Monz6n, Jose Luis
Cruz Salazar and Mauricio Dubois
Second Military Junta
A new Junta was formed
3 to 7 July 1954
5 days
Colonel Elfego H. Monz6n, President;
Colonels Carlos Castillo Armas,
Luis Cruz Salazar and Mauricio
Dubois, Major Enrique Trinidad Oliva
Third Military Jurrta
A new Junta was formed
7 July to 1 September 1954
2 months
Colonels Carlos Castillo Armas,
Elfego H. Monzdn and Major Enrique
Trinidad Oliva
Fourth Military Junta
Resigned in favour of
Castillo Armas
1 September 1954
to 26 Julv 1957
11 months
Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas
Government of the National
Liberation Movement. De facto,
subsequent plebiscite
Assassinated
27 July 1957
to 23 October 1957
3 months
Luis Arturo Gonzalez L6pez
Appointed by Congress
Coup d'etat
23 to 26 October 1957
4 days
Colonels Oscar Mendoza Azurdia,
Roberto Lorenzana Salazar and
Gonzalo Yurrita Nova
Military Junta
Congress appoints second
in line
26 October 1957
to 15 March 1958
4 months
Colonel Guillermo Rores Avendafio
Appointed by Congress
Elections
March 1958 to
March 1963
5 years
General Miguel Ydigoras Fuentes
Elected
The Assembly declared him unfit
Coup d'etat
March 1963 to
July 1966
3 years
Colonel Enrique Peralta Azurdia
De facto
Elections
PRESIDENTIAL PERIODS 1900 TO 1996
July 1966 to
June 1970
4 years
Julio Cesar Mendez Montenegro
Elected
Elections, end of presidential
term
July 1970 to
June 1974
4 years
Colonel Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio
Elected
Elections, end of presidential
term
July 1974 to
June 1978
4 years
General Kjell Eugenio
Laugerud Garcfa
Elected
Elections, end of presidential
term
July 1978 to March 1982
3 years 9 months
General Romeo Lucas Garcfa
Elected
Coup d'etat
March to
June 1982
3 months
General Efrafn Rfos Montt, General
Horacio Egberto Maldonado Schaad,
Colonel Francisco Luis Gordillo
Martinez
Military Junta
Junta was dissolved and Rfos
Montt became president
June 1982 to August 1983
1 year 2 months
General Efrafn Rfos Montt
De facto
Change of military command
August 1983 to January 1986
2 years 5 months
General Oscar Mejfa Vfctores
De facto
Elections
January 1986 to January 1991
5 years
Vinicio Cerezo Arevalo
Elected
Elections, end of presidential
term
January 1991 to
June 1993
2 years
Jorge Serrano Elfas
Elected
Dismissed
June 1993 to
December 1995
2 years 7 months
Ramiro de Le6n Carpio
Transitory Government appointed
by Congress
Elections
January 1996
Alvaro Arzu Irigoyen
Elected
Period ends in the year 2000
81
MAP OF SOCIAL EXCLUSION, 1996
I I Hie least excluded
SOURCE: United Nations Development Programme, Guatemala: the contrasts of human development. Guatemala, 1998, p.16. The index of exclu-
sion is calculated on the basis of the following indicators: deaths before the age of 40, adult illiteracy, malnutrition in children under 5 years of age
and accessibility to certain basic services.
SOURCE: BEST Project 520-0374, USAID - Guatemala
SOURCE: CEH Database; total number of massacres - 669 cases - perpetrated by all responsible forces.
84
100000
10000
55 1000
£
c!
e
z
100
10
Principal human rights violations and acts of violence
Guatemala (1962-1996)
- Arbitrary Execution
■ Forced Disappearance
■ Torture
1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 197S 1990 1982 19S4 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996
Years
SOURCE: CEH Database
NOTE: The lines of the vertical scales - number of violations - follow a progression of multiples of ten.
©
CO
O
O
tm
e
a.
50%
4556
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15% ■
10% •
5%
0%
Total percentage of human rights violations and acts of violence, by department
Guatemala (1962-1996)
m
1
in
L- * i S 3 «
■ * S 8
1 , l ,
£ £ *
£ *
Departments
SOURCE: CEH Database
is
r
85
Total number of human rights violations and acts of violence,
by ethnic group
Guatemala (1962-1996)
100000
10000
g 1000
o
■>
o 100
6
z
10
SOURCE: CEH Database
NOTE: The lines of the vertical scales - number of violations - follow a progression of multiples of ten.
86
90%
80%
70%-
60%
0)
s
o
a.
O)
£ 50%
«
to
S
o
O
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
85%
Forces responsible for human rights violations
and acts of violence
Guatemala (1962-1996)
18%
11%
4%
4%
3%
2%
Army Civil Patrols Military Other Security Not Identified Guerrillas Other Groups
Commissioners Forces
Force responsible
SOURCE: CEH Database
The columns indicate the percentage of responsibility by different groups, whether acting alone or in conjunction with other
forces, with regard to the total number of human rights violations and acts of violence committed. Consequently, the "Army"
category accounts not only for the violations committed by this force when acting alone, but also for those committed in con-
junction with Civil Patrols, military commissioners, death squads or other members of State security forces. In the same way,
the "Civil Patrol" category records the violations committed by its members, acting alone or together with another force. This
logic holds true for all of the categories, therefore the sum total of the percentages is greater than 100.
Responsibility for human rights violations
and acts of violence
Guatemala (1962-1996)
Guerrillas Others/not Identified
SOURCE: CEH Database
The categorisation of group responsibility yields the following data: 93% rests with agents of the State, including in this cat-
egory the Army, security forces, Civil Patrols, military commissioners and death squads; 3% rests with the guerrillas; the
remaining 4% rests with other unidentified armed groups, civilian elements and other public officials.
jai CIVIML.M mcmuniH asci. oikcnu
riNIL NA'TAB'AL TZ INIL NATAB
INCHB EN NAJSA N TUJ QLOLJ E
LAN NATAB AL SILAN NATAB AL
UULANT'IL YU'AM K UULANT IL
! ILANEEM B ANITAJIK TZ 'I LAN El
&CHBAL TETZ JUTZE'CHIL NACh
JAB'EB'ANIL TZET MACH XJALAN
QAB'IIM TAJ Rl QAB'IIM TAJ Rl
JAB'ILAL TZ INANK ULAL SNAB'I
J ATE MALA MEMORIA DEL SILENC
I 'INIL NA'TAB'AL TZ INIL NA TAB
fNCHB EN NAJSA N TUJ QLOLJ E
LAN NATAB AL SILAN NATAB AL
UULANT'IL YU'AM K UULANT IL
HLANEEM B ANITAJIK TZ'ILANE
itCHB'AL TETZ JUTZE'CHIL NACt
AB'EB'AMIL TZET MACH X J ALAN
QAB'IIM TAJ Rl QAB'IIM TAJ
4AB ILAL TZ'INANK'ULAL SNAB'I
JATEMALA MEMORIA DEL SILENC
: SNIL NA'TAB'AL TZ INIL NA TAB
INCHB EN NAJSA N TUJ QLOLJ E
LAN NATAB 'AL SILAN NATAB AL
UULANT'IL YU'AM K UULANT IL
1 ILANEEM B ANITAJIK TZ'ILANE
&CHBAL TETZ JUTZE'CHIL NAC*
4AB EB ANIL TZET MACH XJALAN
QAB'IIM TAJ Rl QAB'IIM TAJ Rl
ilAB'ILAL TZ'INANK'ULAL SNAB'I
JATEMALA MEMORIA DEL SILENC
E'lNIL NA'TAB'AL TZ INIL NA TAB
INCHB EN NAJSA N TUJ QLOLJ I
LAN NATAB AL SILAN NATAB AL
UULANT'IL YU'AM K UULANT IL
JATEMALA MEMORIA DEL SILENC
Translation of the title Memory of Silence into Mayan languages:
KWIIYol Twite Paxil
Academy of Mayan Languages of Guatemala
Design: Setvigraficos S.A. Printing: Utoprint.
Printed in Guatemala
I
3
GUAI tMALA mdvujrn** •!_«_■<« :
TZ'INIL NATAB AL TZ'INIL NA TAB AL TZ'INIL NA TAB AL TZ'INIL N
I CHB'EN NAJSA'N TUJ QLOLJ B INCHB EN NAJSA'N TUJ QLOLJ B'INC
AN NATAB AL SIL
AM K'UULANT'IL
B' AN I TAJIK TZ IL
L TETZ JUTZE'CH
AB EB ANIL TZET
J3IIM TAJ Rl QAB
. TZ INANK ULAL
GUATEMALA MEM
TZ'INIL NA TAB /
ilCHB'EN NAJSA'N
.AN NATAB AL SIL
AM K'UULANT'IL
BANS TAJIK TZ'IL
XL TETZ JUTZE'CK
MAB'EB'ANEL TZET
BUM TAJ Ri QAB
1 TZ INANK ULAL
GUATEMALA MEM
TZ'INIL NA TAB /
CHB'EN NAJSA'N
.AN NATAB AL SIL
AM K'UULANT'IL
B AN I TAJIK TZ'IL
\L TETZ JUTZE'CH
MAB'EB'ANIL TZET
fcB'IIM TAJ Rl QAB
. TZ INANK ULAL
GUATEMALA MEM
TZ'INIL NA'TAB'/
CHB'EN NAJSA'N
LAN NATAB AL SILAN
AM K'UULANT'IL YU
AN NATAB AL S
ANT'IL YU'AM ¥
ANITAJIK TZ'IL
VCHB'AL TETZ J
■ MACH XJALAM
I TAJ Rl QAB llfc
.AL TZ INANK UL
EMORIA DEL SIL
VB'AL TZ'INIL N
UJ QLOLJ B INC
AN NATAB AL
&NTIL YU'AM K
&NITAJIK TZ IL
ICHB'AL TETZ J
' MACH XJALAM
f TAJ RI GAB Ik
-AL TZ'INANK I
EMORIA DEL Si:
XB'AL TZ'INIL K
UJ QLOLJ B \W
AN NATAB AL f
fitNT'lL YU'AM !
&NITAJIK TZ'IL
VCHB'AL TETZ J
■ MACH XJALAfv
I TAJ Rl QAB lEi
.AL TZ'INANK U
EMORIA DEL Sli
AL TZ'INIL N
UJ QLOLJ B'INt
NATAB AL SILAN NATAB AL SILAN NATAB AL Si
AM K'UULANT'IL YU'AM K'UULANT'IL YU'AM K
GUATEMALA MEMORIA DEL SILENCIO GUATEMALA MEMORIA DEL SIL
A witness showed us the remains
of one of the victim's bones. He
had these remains wrapped in
plastic in a string bag: "It hurts
so much to carry them . . . it's like
carrying death. ..I'm not going
to bury them yet (...) I do so
want him to rest, to rest myself,
too. But I can % not yet. . . This
is the evidence for my
testimony. .. I'm not going to
bury them yet, I want a piece of
paper that will say to me: 'they
killed him (...)he had committed
no crime, he was innocent. . . '
And then we will rest. "
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